J. H.

Kim
Senior Researcher,
Turbomachinery Department,
Korea Aerospace Research Institute, Dynamic Simulation of Full
Daejeon 305-600, Korea

T. W. Song
Startup Procedure of Heavy-Duty
Graduate Student,
School of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering,
Gas Turbines
Seoul National University, A simulation program for transient analysis of the startup procedure of heavy duty gas
Seoul 151-742, Korea turbines for power generation has been constructed. Unsteady one-dimensional conser-
vation equations are employed and equation sets are solved numerically using a fully
T. S. Kim implicit method. A modified stage-stacking method has been adopted to estimate the
Assistant Professor, operation of the compressor. Compressor stages are grouped into three categories (front,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, middle, rear), to which three different stage characteristic curves are applied in order to
Inha University, consider the different low-speed operating characteristics. Representative startup se-
Inchon 402-751, Korea quences were adopted. The dynamic behavior of a representative heavy duty gas turbine
was simulated for a full startup procedure from zero to full speed. Simulated results
S. T. Ro matched the field data and confirmed unique characteristics such as the self-sustaining
Professor, and the possibility of rear-stage choking at low speeds. Effects of the estimated schedules
School of Mechanical and Aerospace on the startup characteristics were also investigated. Special attention was paid to the
Engineering, effects of modulating the variable inlet guide vane on startup characteristics, which play
Seoul National University, a key role in the stable operation of gas turbines. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1473150兴
Seoul 151-742, Korea
Fellow ASME

Introduction indicate zero speed but actually involves arbitrary midrange

Gas turbines suffer transient operation due to startup, load
change, shutdown, and other environmental disturbances. During
most of the startup procedure, the performance of most compo-
nents in particular is far lower than during operations around the
design point. Operational characteristics are likewise often highly
unstable. In addition, startup involves a fairly complicated series
of rigid steps such as cranking, purging, and ignition. Accordingly,
a good grasp of the details of gas turbine startup is very important
to ensure safe operations until the base load point.
During startup, there is a high possibility for gas turbines to
encounter critical situations such as compressor surge and stall,
and hot start. In particular, instability due to compressor surge and
stall at low shaft speeds often causes abnormal shutdown 共trip兲
during startup. This situation can usually be avoided by modulat-
ing the angles of the inlet guide vane and/or by extracting some
air from the midstages of the compressor. Meanwhile, if the starter
is cut off before the net shaft power changes from negative to
positive, the turbine decelerates and the temperature drastically
increases. This start failure is known as a ‘‘hot start.’’ To prevent
such a situation, the schedule of fuel flow rate and starter cutoff
time should be carefully determined. Consequently, sophisticated
scheduling based on a precise prediction of dynamic operation is
required.
Since it is not possible to intentionally pose unstable operations
to engines during their startup procedures without endangering
them, an analytical approach using numerical simulations is most
effective in estimating the startup characteristics of gas turbines.
However, related works using the numerical approach are hardly
found except for those based on the quasi-steady methods 共关1,2兴兲.
Furthermore, most of them are not perfect startup simulations by
definition since the initial condition of their simulation does not
Contributed by the International Gas Turbine Institute 共IGTI兲 of THE AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF
ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Paper presented at the Interna-
tional Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, June
4 –7, 2001; Paper 01-GT-017. Manuscript received by IGTI, December 2000, final
revision, March 2001. Associate Editor: R. Natole.
speeds. This appears to result from difficulties in obtaining
low rpm component characteristics, especially those of the
compressor.
In this study, a methodology for the simulation of full startup
procedure of heavy duty gas turbines for power generation is pro-
posed. Basic governing equations describing general transient op-
erations and relevant component models are taken from the pre-
vious works of the authors of this paper 共关3兴兲, proved to be
effective and applicable for the dynamic analysis of gas turbines.
Speed-dependent characteristics of the compressor and startup se-
quences are modeled. Unsteady one-dimensional conservation
equations are used and the sequences that dominantly affect star-
tup characteristics are included in the startup scheduling. The star-
tup characteristics of a typical heavy-duty 150MW class gas tur-
bine are simulated. The results are then compared with field data.
In addition, an analysis is carried out to investigate the effect of
VIGV modulation on the startup characteristics. Even though the
current analysis includes some specific models, only applicable to
heavy duty gas turbines, its fundamental models and frame work
can be applied to other types of engines with additional models,
specific to each engine or group of engines.
Overview of Startup Procedure
In general, most engines share common startup sequences al-
though details may differ from engine to engine. The two common
steps are cranking and ignition. The gas turbine, like any internal
combustion engine, is not self-starting and requires to be cranked
from an external source. Although usually a diesel engine or an
electric motor, the source may also be a steam turbine or a gas
expander. The starter continues to assist the engine to reach a
higher rpm even after the starter torque and the engine torque are
equalized. It is only cut off when the turbine speed reaches a
prescribed percentage of the rated speed, which varies from en-
gine to engine. In general, turbine efficiency must be high enough,
at a speed approximately 40% to 85% of its design speed, in order
for the engine to sustain itself without starter power 共关4兴兲.

510 Õ Vol. 124, JULY 2002 Copyright © 2002 by ASME Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 Table 1 Schedules of main starting sequences in various en-
gines „% of the rated speed…
Solar Westinghouse
Typical Centaur 501F
关5兴 关5兴 关18兴
Ignition 10 20 25
Starter cutoff 40⬃60 60⬃70 64
Bleed valve close 70⬃90 94
VIGV open 70⬃90 100
†
Field data from a combined cycle power plant
After cranking, purging 共removal of combustible gas/fuel in
flow paths兲 takes place before ignition. Simple cycle gas turbines
with conventional upward exhaust do not require purging prior to
ignition. The ignition sequence can proceed when the rotor speed
passes through a designated firing speed. However, if a heat re-
covery equipment is present, gas path purging is required to en-
sure safe ignition. Fuel is supplied and ignition is initiated when
the fuel pressure is high enough and turbine speed is above the
preset minimum of the rated speed 共10% typically, 关5兴兲. After
ignition, the engine is accelerated up to the rated speed with a
prescribed fuel flow schedule. During this acceleration, the VIGV
angle and the bleed valve opening are modulated to secure stable
operation.
Starting sequences of several engines are surveyed and shown
in Table 1. Ignition is initiated at around 10–20% of the rated
speed and the starter is cut off when the speed reaches around
60% of the rated speed. Bleed valves are kept open up to 70–90%
of the rated speed and the VIGV angle is kept closed up to 70% or
even 100% of the rated speed. At this moment, the front stage of
the compressor is almost choked. Then, the VIGV angle is opened
following a preset schedule.
The procedures stated above represent most of the current en-
gines and are also considered the main sequence in the startup
simulation carried out in this study.
Governing Equations
Unsteady conservation equations and the equation of motion for
a rotating body describe the dynamic behavior of a gas turbine
under transient operation. This paper adopts one-dimensional
equations derived from the integral forms of conservation equa-
tions 共关3兴兲, which are continuity, momentum, and energy equa-
tions. They appear as follows:
Continuity equation:
d ␳ i⫹1
V ⫽⫺ṁ i⫹1 ⫹ṁ i
dt
Momentum equation:
d 共 ␳ u 兲 i⫹1
V ⫽⫺ 共 ṁ i⫹1 u i⫹1 ⫺ṁ i u i ⫹p i⫹1 A i⫹1 ⫺p i A i 兲 ⫹F
dt
Energy equation:
d
V 共 ␳ H⫺p 兲 i⫹1 ⫽⫺ 共 ṁ i⫹1 H i⫹1 ⫺ṁ i H i 兲 ⫹Q̇⫺Ẇ s
dt
The variables in the storage terms are represented by the control
volume exit values. This study does not aim at capturing pressure
fluctuation such as surge because the time scale of the analysis in
this paper is not short enough to analyze pressure fluctuation in-
side the compressor. However, including the momentum equation
may allow the possibility of simulating compressor surge, as ex-
emplified in the previous work 共关6兴兲. Ordinary differential equa-
tions can be solved numerically using prescribed initial and
boundary conditions. These equations are applied to each compo-
nent with suitable F, Q̇, and Ẇ s values, which must be specified
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms
at each time step, i.e., given as input values. They can be derived
from either characteristic maps or steady-state off-design models
and are evaluated using the following equations:
GE
Typical GE F⫽ṁ i⫹1 * ⫺ṁ i u i ⫹p i⫹1
* u i⫹1 * A i⫹1 ⫺p i A i (4)
关4,16兴 7F†
10⬃15 15 Ẇ s ⫽ṁ i 共 H i ⫺H i⫹1
* 兲. (5)
In these equations, * denotes the steady-state outlet conditions
83.5 80 for the given inlet conditions at each time step. The heat transfer
rate Q̇ appears only in the combustor and is equal to the fuel
energy input.
Component Models
Compressors. The operational characteristics of modern
compressors are very complicated due to the interstage air bleed-
ing, and the active modulation of the variable inlet guide vane and
stator vanes. An efficient method to calculate the performance of
multistage axial compressors proposed by the authors of this pa-
per 共关3,7兴兲 is used in the present analysis. It requires stage perfor-
mance maps but differs from the conventional sequential stage-
stacking method in that it adopts simultaneous calculation of all
interstage parameters. Thus, it can be effectively utilized in a com-
plicated system analysis such as the one used in the present study.
Generalized stage characteristics 共关8兴兲 are used, which are repre-
sented by relations among flow coefficient, pressure coefficient,
temperature coefficient, and efficiency. In case of variable vane
setting angles, the stage characteristics evaluation is modified by
adopting an analytical approach 共关9兴兲. The feasibility of the
method can be found in previous works 共关3,7兴兲, where compari-
sons between analysis and field data for the performance of both
fixed and variable geometry compressors were presented.
Turbine. With given inlet conditions, the expansion pressure
ratio of a stage is obtained using the well-known Stodola equa-
tion. To obtain stage performances, a row-by-row prediction
method for a cooled turbine proposed by Kim and Ro 关10兴 is used,
while a model of pressure loss caused by mixing is modified
based on the model proposed by Kim et al. 关11兴. Coolant flow is
driven by static pressure differences between points where the
coolant is extracted and injected.
Combustor and Guide Ducts. The heating value of fuel is
transferred to the combustor as the heat source Q̇ in the energy
equation. In the combustor and inlet/outlet ducts, loss of total
pressure is considered by assuming a quasi-steady flow.
Rotating Shaft. The rotational motion of the shaft can be
presented by the following equation:
(1)
d␻
I ⫽G t ⫺G c ⫹G st ⫺G l . (6)
dt
The first two terms on the right-hand side refer to the developed
torque 共net gas turbine torque兲 while the third term indicates the
(2) starter torque. The last term is the load torque and is maintained at
zero during the acceleration period until full speed is reached.
(3) Compressor Characteristics at Low Speeds
The performance of each component deteriorates at low speeds,
and engines often cannot operate normally. Multistage axial flow
compressors with a high design pressure ratio exhibit extremely
low performance 共low pressure ratio and low efficiency兲 and me-
chanical problems 共vibration, etc.兲 at low speeds. Most of these
problems are caused by discontinuities in the performance char-
acteristics of the front stages. Such discontinuities may be due to
stage stalling and deterioration of the stage performance 共关12兴兲.
Therefore, careful attention should be paid to modeling low-speed
operation characteristics of multistage axial flow compressors.
The generalized stage performance characteristics mentioned in
JULY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 511
 Fig. 1 Extended stage characteristics; „a… pressure coefficient „model 1–front stages…, „b… isentropic efficiency „model
1–front stages…, „c… pressure coefficient „model 2–middle stages…, „d… isentropic efficiency „model 2–middle stages…, „e…
pressure coefficient „model 3–rear stages…, „f … isentropic efficiency „model 3–rear stages…

the last section do not cover the low-speed region and should be
modified to incorporate characteristics at low speeds, i.e., at low
flow coefficients.
A couple of models have been proposed to obtain low speed
characteristics. Agrawal and Yunis 关1兴 developed a mathematical
model to estimate gas turbine performance in the starting regime.
Based on the general observation that characteristics at low-speed
operation do not differ much from engine to engine, they esti-
mated compressor characteristics using empirical observations
from a number of engines. However, their model cannot be
adopted in this study, based on a stage-by-stage model, since their
work concerns the modeling of the performance of whole multi-
stage compressors. The idea of Benser 关12兴 is more appropriate
for this work. He divided stage characteristics into three kinds
using different definitions of stage stall: 共1兲 progressive stall, a
gradual but continuous decrease in stage performance as the flow
coefficient decreases below the stalling value, and 共2兲 abrupt stall,
a sudden or abrupt drop in stage performance at the stalling value
of flow coefficient.
Since the basic concept of Benser is adopted in this work, three
different models for stage characteristics are employed, and these
are applied to the front, the middle, and the rear stages, respec-
tively. While the generalized stage characteristics in the high flow
coefficient region, mentioned in the last section, are used as they
are, those in the low-flow coefficient region are generated based
on experimental data 共关13兴兲. Then, all the operating range during
startup, from very low to high flow coefficient, may be covered.
The models used are shown in Fig. 1. As applied to front stages,
only the progressive stall occurs in model 1, while only the abrupt
stall occurs in model 3 as applied to rear stages. In model 2,
applied to middle stages, a rather moderate abrupt stall occurs.

512 Õ Vol. 124, JULY 2002 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 Table 2 Design specifications of the GE 7F engine
System GE 7F
Speed, rpm 3600
Electrical power, MW 150
Cycle efficiency, % 34.5
Compressor 18-stage axial
Pressure ratio 13.5
Combustor Reverse flow type
Turbine 3-stage axial
Exhaust air flow, kg/s 419
Firing temperature, °C 1260
Exit temperature, °C 600
Object of Analysis
The startup procedure of a 150 MW class gas turbine for power
generation 共GE 7F兲 is simulated, and the results are compared
with field data. Design specifications are listed in Table 2. Some
of the startup sequences should be assumed or estimated for the
simulation because all of them are not specified from operating
data. These are inferred from other engines and examinations of
field data. The purging procedure before ignition is not considered
in this study since such a procedure cannot be found from the field
data. The estimated startup sequences and their detailed schedules
are summarized in Table 3.
Sizing a starter system is difficult primarily because diverse
contributing factors cannot be exactly quantified. This is normally
done during the detailed system design phase. In general, it is
known that the maximum starter power is obtained at about 20%
of the rated speed 共关14兴兲, and the starter torque decreases linearly
with rpm from its maximum value up to the cutoff speed 共关5,15兴兲.
The maximum starter torque at zero rpm may be estimated ap-
proximately with this assumption. It is presumed that the starter
cutoff occurs at 65% of the rated speed.
Modulation of VIGV angle follows the general rule of GE en-
gines 共关16兴兲 and is listed in the table. During the modulating pe-
riod, the opening is increased linearly with rpm. Since the sched-
ule of air bleeding is not given from the field data, a reasonable
assumption should be made. It is assumed that the total amount of
bleed air is 15% of the compressor inlet airflow, and 5% of the
bleed air is assigned to each bleed point 共exit of 13th, 17th, and
18th stage—these are also coolant sources兲. At 95% speed, the
bleed valve is closed and the extracted air is supplied to the tur-
bine as coolant. The field data for fuel flow rate are not refined
enough to be utilized as numerical input for the transient simula-
tion. Thus, the schedule of fuel flow rate is determined so that the
simulated turbine exhaust temperature values during full startup
may match the measured data on the whole.
gine. Consequently, remaining 3n variables can be obtained as
solutions of the equation set since there exist 3n equations 共con-
tinuity, momentum, and energy for n stages兲. The multivariable
Newton-Raphson method is used to solve the equation set. During
the main startup 共acceleration兲 period, no special feedback control
is used. Instead a kind of feed-forward control following fuel
scheduling is applied. After the rated speed is reached, a feedback
control to keep the rated shaft speed 共关3兴兲 is applied.
Results and Discussions
The variations in rpm and fuel flow rate during startup are
shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, respectively. The fuel supply schedule
used as input in the simulation 共the solid line of Fig. 3兲, which is
determined using the criterion of a close agreement between pre-
dicted and measured exhaust temperatures, appears to reproduce
the measured field data well enough. It should be noted that the
field fuel flow data do not appear very reliable in the viewpoint of
their local trends. Thus, the estimated input schedule is used as
input in the simulation. The shaft speed development is well pre-
dicted. Furthermore, prediction of the time required to reach the
rated speed is accurate enough. These results confirm that sched-
ules for starter torque and fuel flow rate schedule were reasonably
estimated. The dotted line in Fig. 3 represents the fuel flow rate,
with which the turbine power equals the compressor power at
each speed. This is usually called ‘‘equilibrium running.’’ This
fuel flow rate for the equilibrium running is obtained by a steady
state off-design performance analysis. To accelerate the system,
more fuel than that corresponding to the equilibrium running
should be supplied at each speed. This is confirmed in Fig. 3. The
reverse effect at very low speeds 共0 to 28% rpm兲 is due to the fact
that the engine does not reach the self-sustaining point, and the
starter supplies additional torque as will be shown later. The TET
variation also matches the field data well, as shown in Fig. 4,
because the fuel flow rate is scheduled so that TET prediction is as
close as possible to the field data as stated earlier. The turbine
exhaust temperature falls down at 80% of the rated speed when
VIGV modulation begins. A sudden decrease of TET at that point
can be clearly observed in Fig. 4(b), where TET variation is
depicted with time. The decrease of TET is caused by the increase
of combustor inlet airflow 共low fuel-air ratio兲 by opening the
VIGV.

Numerical Treatment
A fully implicit method is introduced to solve a set of ordinary
differential equations where the static pressure, temperature, and
axial velocity for every control surface are variables. Therefore,
all of 3(n⫹1) variables exist for n control volumes. Three of
them are given as boundary conditions, and these are the inlet Fig. 2 Variation in shaft speed during startup
total temperature, pressure, and exhaust static pressure of the en-

Table 3 Estimated startup sequences of GE 7F

Sequences Detailed Schedule Time共% RPM兲

Ignition On 15 关16兴
Starter G st ⫽G st,max(1⫺Ñ/0.65) 0– 65
cutoff 65
Air bleed 15% of compressor inlet 0–95
Close 95
VIGV closed 56° 0– 80 关16兴
modulated 56°→33° 80–90 关16兴
opened 33° 90–100 关16兴
Fig. 3 Schedule of fuel flow rate during startup

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power JULY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 513

Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 Fig. 6 Variations in turbine and compressor efficiencies dur-
ing startup

Fig. 4 Variations in turbine exhaust temperature during star-

tup; „a… TET variation with % rpm, „b… TET variation with time

Meanwhile, a couple of typical characteristics during startup

can be observed in the prediction results. It is known that the
contribution of the turbine power during the first low-speed phase
of starting may be neglected. This means that the developed
power 共the net power of the engine兲 has a negative value in the
early stage of an engine startup. This is the reason why an addi-
tional power should be supplied externally by a starting device. As
shown in Fig. 5, the developed 共net兲 power decreases down to the
Fig. 7 Distribution of flow coefficient over the stages at vari-
negative scale with the rpm at the beginning stage. When fuel is
ous speed
supplied and combustion starts 共15% rpm兲, however, the devel-
oped power begins to increase to reach the self-sustaining point
共about 28% rpm兲. The increase of the developed power results
from a rapid recovery of turbine efficiency as shown in Fig. 6. The
prediction results are reasonable considering that the self-
sustaining point is usually observed at 25% of the rated speed
共关14兴兲.
When a compressor runs at a speed lower than the design
speed, the pressure ratio will be lower than the design values. The
resulting effect of density reduction in rear stages will be to in-
crease the axial velocity. Then, choking will eventually occur
there and limit the mass flow 共关17兴兲. Such increases of axial ve-
locities at rear stages can be observed from the prediction results
shown in Fig. 7. At low speeds 共10 and 50% rpm on the figure兲,
axial velocities are higher in rear stages. Thus, the mass flow will
be limited by choking in rear stages at low speeds. As speed
increases, density at every stage approaches the design value, al-
lowing the rear stages to pass the flow provided by the front
stages. In high speeds, the flow coefficient of the first stage has the

Fig. 8 Variations in firing temperature and exhaust tempera-

ture during startup: effect of VIGV modulation; „a… firing tem-
perature, „b… turbine exhaust temperature

highest value, where choking occurs. This result also coincides

with the fact that choking occurs at the front stage of the com-
pressor in high rpm regions.
As mentioned earlier, gas turbines show different startup char-
Fig. 5 Variation in developed power in low rpm region acteristics depending on the schedules of various sequences re-

514 Õ Vol. 124, JULY 2002 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms


Fig. 9 Variation in combustor inlet airflow during startup: ef-
fect of VIGV modulation
result of nearly constant mass flow rate after 80% rpm is due to
the 1st stage choking in the compressor. As shown in Fig. 10, the
flow coefficient of the 1st stage does not change considerably after
80% rpm although the speed is increasing. Operating lines during
startup for both cases are depicted in Fig. 11. The surge line is
decided approximately based on the fact that the surge margin in
gas turbines for power generation is about 15–20% 共关14兴兲 at every
equilibrium running point. Evaluation of an exact surge line is
beyond the scope of this work. In the absence of VIGV modula-
tion, the operating line is closer to the surge line in high rpm
regions. Thus, any mismatching between different sequences may
cause very severe problems during startup. This simulation dem-
onstrates the possible result of an extreme case of mismatching
between fuel and VIGV modulation.

Fig. 10 Variation in first stage flow coefficient during startup:
effect of VIGV modulation
Conclusion
Transient behavior of a heavy duty gas turbine during startup
was simulated and its unique characteristics were investigated.
Typical engine starting sequences were examined and representa-
tive sequences were adopted in the simulation. Unsteady one-
dimensional conservation equations were used, and models based
on stage performance were adopted both for compressors and tur-
bines. Special attention was made to model the operation of com-
pressor stages at low speeds. The startup procedure of a 150 MW
class gas turbine 共GE 7F兲 was simulated with an estimated sched-
ule of starting sequences including fuel supply, starter torque sup-
ply, VIGV angle setting, and air bleeding. All system parameters
including shaft speed development and exhaust temperature are in
good agreements with the field data during the whole acceleration
period from zero to full speed. The time when the engine becomes
self-sustaining matches the general observation. The possibility of
rear-stage choking during low-speed operation is also confirmed.
The effect of VIGV modulation was analyzed by performing a
startup simulation without modulating the VIGV during the accel-
eration period. In the absence of VIGV modulation, the firing
temperature increases drastically after 80% rpm due to high fuel-
air ratio. This results in a high possibility of compressor surge.
This analysis demonstrates the importance of a precise estimation
of the startup schedule including the matching of diverse
sequences.

Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Brain Korea 21 project.

Fig. 11 Operating lines during startup: effect of VIGV

Nomenclature
modulation A ⫽ area
F ⫽ force
G ⫽ torque
quired. In this study, special attention is given to the effects of H ⫽ total enthalpy
VIGV modulation on startup characteristics, which is very impor- I ⫽ polar moment of inertia
tant for the stable operation of the compressor and, eventually, of ṁ ⫽ mass flow rate
the gas turbine. This investigation helps us to understand the rea- N ⫽ rotational speed
son why the schedule should be determined as such and to know Ñ ⫽ nondimensional rotational speed (N/N ref)
how the sequence significantly affects startup characteristics. In p ⫽ static pressure
addition, this procedure makes it possible to examine how a PR ⫽ total-to-total pressure ratio
wrong schedule estimate 共i.e., mismatching of sequences兲 can se- Q̇ ⫽ heat transfer rate
verely affect the startup characteristics estimate. To investigate the t ⫽ time
effect of VIGV modulation, the startup characteristics previously TET ⫽ turbine exhaust temperature
predicted are compared with those of the case without VIGV TRIT ⫽ turbine rotor inlet temperature 共firing temperature兲
modulation 共VIGV not opened even at speeds higher than 80%兲. u ⫽ axial velocity
In this case, the schedule is such that the rated speed is reached V ⫽ volume
with VIGV fully closed and then opened at the rated speed. As VIGV ⫽ variable inlet guide vane
shown in Fig. 8, the firing 共turbine rotor inlet兲 and exhaust tem- Ẇ s ⫽ shaft power
peratures increase drastically after reaching 80% rpm without ␾ ⫽ flow coefficient 共axial velocity/blade speed兲
VIGV modulation. Increase of these temperatures is caused by the ␩ ⫽ isentropic efficiency
nearly constant air mass flow rate as shown in Fig. 9, which re- ␳ ⫽ density
sults in high fuel-air ratio at the combustor. The reason for this ␻ ⫽ angular velocity

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power JULY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 515

Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 ␺ ⫽ pressure coefficient 关7兴 Song, T. W., Kim, T. S., Kim, J. H., and Ro, S. T., 2001, ‘‘Performance
Prediction of Axial Flow Compressors Using Stage Characteristics and Simul-
(isentropic temperature rise/blade speed2 ) taneous Calculation of Interstage Parameters,’’ Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part A,
Subscripts Power Energy, 215, pp. 89–98.
关8兴 Muir, D. E., Saravanamuttoo, H. I. H., and Marshall, D. J., 1989, ‘‘Health
c ⫽ compressor Monitoring of Variable Geometry Gas Turbines for the Canadian Navy,’’
i ⫽ control volume index ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 111, pp. 244 –250.
l ⫽ load 关9兴 Klapproth, J. F., 1958, discussion, ‘‘Effects of Stage Characteristics and
Matching on Axial-Flow-Compressor Performance,’’ Trans. ASME, 80, pp.
ref ⫽ reference 1290–1291.
st ⫽ starter 关10兴 Kim, T. S., and Ro, S. T., 1997, ‘‘The Effect of Gas Turbine Coolant Modu-
t ⫽ turbine lation on the Part Load Performance of Combined Cycle Plants—Part1: Gas
Turbine,’’ Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part A, 211, pp. 443– 451.
关11兴 Kim, J. H., Kim, T. S., Lee, J. S., and Ro, S. T., 1996, ‘‘Performance Analysis
References of a Turbine Stage Having Cooled Nozzle Blades With Trailing Edge Ejec-
关1兴 Agrawal, R. K., and Yunis, M., 1982, ‘‘A Generalized Mathematical Model to tion,’’ ASME Paper 96-TA-12.
Estimate Gas Turbine Starting Characteristics,’’ ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines 关12兴 Benser, W. A., 1965, ‘‘Compressor Operation With One or More Blade Rows
Power, 104, pp. 194 –201. Stalled,’’ Aerodynamic Design of Axial-Flow Compressors, I. A. Johnsen and
关2兴 Saravanamuttoo, H. I. H., and MacISAAC, B. D., 1973, ‘‘The Use of a Hybrid R. O. Bullock, eds., NASA SP-36, pp. 341–364.
Computer in the Optimization of Gas Turbine Control Parameters,’’ ASME J. 关13兴 Copenhaver, W. W., 1993, ‘‘Rotating Stall Performance and Recoverability of
Eng. Power, 95, pp. 257–264. a High-Speed 10-Stage Axial Flow Compressor,’’ J. Propul. Power, 9, pp.
关3兴 Kim, J. H., Song, T. W., Kim, T. S., and Ro, S. T., 2001, ‘‘Model Development 282–291.
and Simulation of Transient Behavior of Heavy Duty Gas Turbines,’’ ASME J. 关14兴 Walsh, P. P., and Fletcher, P., 1998, Gas Turbine Performance, 1st Ed., Black-
Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 123, pp. 589–594. well Science Ltd., London.
关4兴 Johnson, D., Miller, R. W., and Ashley, T., 1998, ‘‘SPEEDTRONIC™ MARK 关15兴 Lindsay, D. H., 1995, The Design of Gas Turbine Engines—Thermodynamics
V Gas Turbine Control System,’’ GE Turbine State-of-the-Art Technology and Aerodynamics, 2nd Ed., ASME, New York.
Seminar, GER 3658D, pp. 459– 477. 关16兴 GE Industrial & Power Systems, 1993, Fundamentals of SPEEDTRONIC™
关5兴 Beyene, A., and Fredlund, T., 1998, ‘‘Comparative Analysis of Gas Turbine MARK V Control System, A00023 Rev.A.
Engine Starting,’’ ASME Paper 98-GT-419. 关17兴 Cohen, H., Rogers, G. F. C., and Saravanamuttoo, H. I. H., 1996, Gas Turbine
关6兴 Macdougal, I., and Elder, R. L., 1983, ‘‘Simulation of Centrifugal Compressor Theory, 4th Ed., Longman Group Limited, London.
Transient Performance for Process Plant Applications,’’ ASME J. Eng. Power, 关18兴 WESTINGHOUSE Power Generation Business Unit, 1994, 501F ECONOPAC
105, pp. 885– 890. Application Handbook.

516 Õ Vol. 124, JULY 2002 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://gasturbinespower.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms