Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and

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A gas turbine diagnostic approach with transient measurements

Y. G. Li
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 2003 217: 169
DOI: 10.1243/09576500360611317
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169
A gas turbine diagnostic approach with

transient measurements
Y G Li
Department of Propulsion, Power and Aerospace Engineering, School of Engineering,
Cran eld University, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
Abstract: Most gas turbine performance analysis based diagnostic methods use the information from
steady state measurements. Unfortunately, steady state measurement may not be obtained easily in some
situations, and some types of gas turbine fault contribute little to performance deviation at steady state
operating conditions but signi cantly during transient processes. Therefore, gas turbine diagnostics with
transient measurement is superior to that with steady state measurement. In this paper, an accumulated
deviation is de ned for gas turbine performance parameters in order to measure the level of performance
deviation during transient processes. The features of the accumulated deviation are analysed and compared
with traditionally de ned performance deviation at a steady state condition. A non-linear model based
diagnostic method, combined with a genetic algorithm (GA), is developed and applied to a model gas turbine
engine to diagnose engine faults by using the accumulated deviation obtained from transient measurement.
Typical transient measurable parameters of gas turbine engines are used for fault diagnostics, and a typical
slam acceleration process from idle to maximum power is chosen in the analysis. The developed diagnostic
approach is applied to the model engine implanted with three typical single-component faults and is shown
to be very successful.
Keywords: gas turbine, engine, diagnostics, transient, performance, fault detection, genetic algorithm
NOTATION r shaft radius (m)

t time (s)
C friction coef cient T total temperature (K)
f friction (N) W power (W)
f…† function x component parameter vector
FC fault class zi measurable parameter
F… † function z measurable parameter vector
GA genetic algorithm
HP high pressure G ow capacity
HPB high-pressure shaft bearings D small change
HPC high-pressure compressor Z ef ciency
HPT high-pressure turbine p 3.14159
IP intermediate pressure si average standard deviation of the ith
IPC intermediate pressure compressor measurement
LP low pressure
LPB low-pressure shaft bearings Superscripts
LPC low-pressure compressor
LPT low-pressure turbine ^ estimated
mf fuel owrate (kg/s) ~ accumulated deviation
N relative shaft speed (%) or number of
measurable parameters Subscripts
P total pressure (kPa)
b burner
The MS was received on 2 August 2002 and was accepted after revision for f fuel
publication on 6 November 2002. max maximum
A05302 # IMechE 2003 Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part A: J. Power and Energy
170 Y G LI
n nominal or clean gas turbine engine whose transient performance is simulated

ref reference with a transient performance code is used for the diagnostic
t total analysis. The developed diagnostic approach is applied to
0 starting point the model engine implanted with three different single-
2 HP compressor exit component faults. The effectiveness of the new diagnostic
5 LP turbine exit approach is shown and analysed.
15 HP compressor inlet
2 MODEL ENGINE
1 INTRODUCTION
Owing to the unavailability of real engine data, a model gas
turbine engine (Fig. 1) is chosen for the diagnostic analysis.
The performance of gas turbine engines deteriorates during
It is a two-spool turbofan engine with the following basic
their operation owing to component degradation. Therefore,
performance parameters:
necessary maintenance is required to keep the engine
condition at a high level. Traditionally, engine maintenance
is carried out following the manufacturer’s schedule. In Total mass owrate 200 kg/s
order to shift from prescheduled maintenance to condition Total pressure ratio 19
monitored maintenance, gas turbine condition monitoring Bypass ratio 2.7
and diagnostics must be used. Turbine entry temperature 1350 K
Most gas turbine diagnostics uses the information from
engine steady state measurements. Unfortunately, in some A slam acceleration process from idle to maximum thrust is
situations good-quality steady state measurements are dif cult chosen for the analysis because it is one of the most
to obtain, such as those of military aircraft engines that operate frequently used transient processes for gas turbine engines.
up to 70 per cent of the total mission time at unsteady It is also a process where the starting point is easy to set for
conditions [1]. In addition, some gas turbine component both engine transient measurements and engine transient
faults, such as bearing fault [2] and misscheduled nal performance modelling required by the diagnostic approach.
nozzle control during transients [3], contribute little to steady A fuel control schedule expressed in a non-dimensional
state performance deviation but signi cantly to transient form, equation (1), is applied to the engine. Therefore, the
performance change. Furthermore, performance shift due to actual fuel owrate is determined by the pressure ratio of
engine faults is very likely to be magni ed during transients the high-pressure (HP) compressor, the HP shaft speed and
compared with that at corresponding steady state conditions. the HP compressor discharge total pressure
8
Therefore, gas turbine fault detection with transient measure- < mf Pt2
ments is bene cial in these cases. Gas turbine engine perfor- ˆf ; if mf < mf ;max
NHP Pt2 Pt15 …1†
mance deterioration and fault signatures during transient :
mf ˆ mf ;max ; if mf 5 mf;max
processes and fault diagnosis were analysed by Merrington
et al. [1, 3–5], Henry [6], Luppold et al. [7], Kerr et al. [8], A transient performance prediction code developed by
Bird and Schwartz [9] and Lunderstaedt and Junk [10]. Maccallum and Qi [20] for the model gas turbine engine
Different gas turbine performance analysis based diag- is modi ed for the analysis. The prediction of the transient
nostic techniques have been developed since Urban [11] performance is established on the basis of the continuity of
introduced the rst gas path analysis method in 1967, and a mass and energy. The intercomponent volume method [21]
comprehensive review of these techniques was provided by is used to take into account the effect of air (or gas)
Li [12]. Different methods for simulating engine performance accumulation or diminution within engine components and
degradation have been developed by many researchers, such
as Saravanamuttoo and MacIsaac [13]. A non-linear model
based diagnostic approach using a genetic algorithm (GA)
as an optimization tool is one of the powerful methods for
diagnosing gas turbine faults. It has been used since 1999 by
many researchers, such as Zedda and Singh [14, 15], Gulati
et al. [16, 17] Grönstedt [18] and Sampath et al. [19], and
has proved to be successful.
In this paper, the non-linear model based diagnostic
approach is extended to gas turbine fault diagnosis with
engine transient measurements. The transient performance
change due to engine faults is measured with an engine
performance accumulated deviation de ned in this paper.
The features of the accumulated deviation are analysed and
compared with steady state performance deviation. A model Fig. 1 Model gas turbine turbofan engine
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part A: J. Power and Energy
A05302 # IMechE 2003
A GAS TURBINE DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH WITH TRANSIENT MEASUREMENTS 171
ducts. The effect of heat transfer between air (or gas) and
engine component is also included in the simulation. The
engine performance model behaves highly non-linearly and
can be used to simulate the engine behaviour in a variety of
operating conditions. The original code was used to predict
the transient processes of Rolls-Royce Spey and Tay
engines, and satisfactory results were obtained [22]. Details
of the transient prediction methods have been described by
Maccallum and Qi [20] and Pilidis [23].
Engine models can be tuned to simulate real engine
performance accurately. Owing to the fact that current
research is to develop a diagnostic approach with transient
measurement, it is assumed that the engine model is accurate Fig. 3 Variation in HP shaft bearing loss: —, CH P B ˆ 1.01;
enough to simulate real engine behaviour during transient £, CH P B ˆ 1.02; ‚ , CH P B ˆ 1.03; E , CH P B ˆ 1.04
processes. Tuning techniques are beyond the scope of this
paper and therefore not discussed. HP shaft extra power consumption relative to the HP turbine
The degradation of compressors and turbines is repre- power at engine maximum power condition is shown in
sented by the drop in isentropic ef ciencies and the change in Fig. 3 for different CHPB varying from 1.01 to 1.04. It can be
ow capacities. Combustor degradation is represented by the
seen that, although the bearing loss does not change too
drop in combustion ef ciency. Shaft bearing failure is
much when the engine accelerates from low to high opera-
simulated and implanted by extracting a certain amount of ting conditions, the percentage of this extra power consump-
power done by increased bearing friction from either the HP tion relative to the HP turbine power is up to 20 times higher
or the low-pressure (LP) shaft. The power is calculated by when the engine is operating at low power rather than at
means of equations (2) and (3). To simplify the analysis, it is high power. Therefore, the impact of bearing failure is larger
assumed that the friction is constant during a transient when the engine is operating at low power rather than at
process for a certain level of bearing failure high power.
WHPB ˆ …CHPB ¡ 1†… fHPB rLP †‰2p…NHP ¡ NLP †Š …2†
WLPB ˆ …CLPB ¡ 1†… fLPB rLP †…2pNLP † …3† 3 PERFORMANCE DEVIATION
When HP shaft bearings fail, the power consumed by
Traditionally, the deviation in gas turbine performance
increased friction is extracted from the HP shaft and applied
parameters is de ned as the shift of the parameters from
to the LP shaft. When LP shaft bearings fail, the power
their nominal values at a steady state condition due to
consumed is only extracted from the LP shaft. Owing to the
performance degradation, and is expressed as
lack of experimental data, it is assumed that the increase in
bearing friction results in an extra power consumption of the z ¡ zn
order of up to 0.4 per cent (corresponding to CHPB ˆ 1:04) Dz ˆ …4†
zn
of HP turbine power when the engine is operating at its
maximum power. The variation in the ratio of the HP shaft
where z is the current value of a performance parameter and
extra power consumption and the HP turbine power during
zn is the nominal value of the parameter. Such a de nition is
the acceleration is shown in Fig. 2, while the variation in the
based on the assumption that the measurements are made at
the same steady state operation point. When an engine is
new, there should be no deviations in any of the measurable
parameters. When the engine is degraded, the deviations in
the measurable parameters are used by a diagnostic system
for fault detection, isolation and quanti cation. Unfortu-
nately, such a deviation concept cannot be easily applied to
transient process diagnostics.
In order to diagnose gas turbine faults by analysing
transient measurements, the analysis of performance devia-
tion for the whole transient process is more useful than at a
certain operation point. Therefore, a new concept of accu-
mulated deviation is introduced to measure the shift of a
parameter trajectory from its nominal position (Fig. 4)
Fig. 2 Variation in the ratio of HP shaft bearing loss and owing to engine component degradation, de ned as the
HP turbine power: —, CH P B ˆ 1.01; £, CH P B ˆ 1.02; area between the two trajectories divided by the area
‚ , C H P B ˆ 1.03; E , CH P B ˆ 1.04 under the nominal trajectory during the transient period
172 Y G LI
Fig. 6 Fuel owrate change due to HP turbine fault: ———,

nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine
Fig. 4 Trajectories of a nominal and degraded performance
parameter 2. The difference between the steady state deviation and the
accumulated deviation becomes smaller for a speci c
transient process when the integration time in equation (5)
and expressed by equation (5), or, in discrete form, by
becomes longer. Figure 5 shows how the accumulated
equation (6)
deviation in the LP shaft speed of the model engine
„t varies with the integration time t in equation (5) when a
t ‰z…t† ¡ zn …t†Š dt
D~z ˆ 0 „ t …5† HP turbine fault is implanted (an ef ciency drop of
t0 zn …t† dt 2 per cent and a ow capacity rise of 4 per cent) into
PIt the model engine. It also shows that, near the end of the
iˆIt0 ‰z…ti † ¡ zn …ti †Š
D~z ˆ PIt …6† acceleration …t ˆ 8 s† (Fig. 6), the accumulated deviation
iˆIt zn …ti † reaches its maximum absolute value, which indicates
0
how best to take advantage of this approach.
The sampling time step is 0.2 s for equation (6), i.e. 5 3. A fault signature expressed by the accumulated devia-
recording/s; a shorter sampling time step would be bene cial tions is very likely to be magni ed compared with the
in reducing the impact of measurement noise. In real appli- fault signature expressed by the steady state deviations
cations, measurement noise would be added to the z…t† and for the same component faults. This phenomenon is well
zn …t† signals, but the accumulated deviation D~z would be illustrated in Figs 7 and 8 when two different single-
noise free if the sampling time step were small enough. component faults are implanted into the model engine.
By comparing the behaviour of the steady state deviation This feature would bene t fault diagnosis when the
and the accumulated deviation of the model engine during accumulated deviations are used.
the slam acceleration, it is found that: 4. The two deviations for the same parameters may show
different variations, i.e. they may not have the same sign.
1. The deviation at steady state is a special case of accu-
Examples of this are the fault signatures of an HP shaft
mulated deviation calculated at a speci c moment. In
bearing fault shown in Fig. 8 where the bearing friction
addition, when the engine is operating at steady state
coef cient CHPB ˆ 1:04 is implantedand the fault signatures
conditions, two deviations have the same value.
of an LP turbine fault shown in Fig. 9 where a 2 per cent ef -
ciency drop and 4 per cent ow capacity drop are implanted.
Fig. 5 Accumulated deviation changes with different integra-

tion times: ———, accumulated deviation; – – –, Fig. 7 Fault signatures of a HP turbine fault (2 per cent
steady state deviation ef ciency drop and 4 per cent ow capacity rise)
A05302 # IMechE 2003
Fig. 8 Fault signatures of HP shaft bearing failure …CHPB ˆ 1:04†

Fig. 11 Total pressure changes due to HP turbine fault: ———,
nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine
Fig. 9 Fault signatures of LP turbine fault (2 per cent

ef ciency drop and 4 per cent ow capacity drop)
Fig. 12 Total temperature changes due to HP turbine fault:
———, nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine
Gas turbine component degradation affects both steady and
transient performance, and this effect is also magni ed by
the engine control schedule. For this speci c engine, for
example, it can be seen that, when engine performance is illustrated in Figs 6 and 10 to 16 by comparing the
degraded, the fuel owrate also deviates from its nominal performance with and without degradation during the accele-
schedule on account of the fact that the non-dimensional ration of the model turbofan engine implanted with an HP
fuel owrate is determined by the HP compressor pressure turbine fault simulated by a 2 per cent thermal ef ciency
ratio determined by equation (1), which in turn magni es drop and 4 per cent ow capacity rise and an HP shaft
the performance deviation during transients. Therefore, the bearing failure simulated by an extra HP shaft power
impact on transient performance is very likely to be larger consumption de ned by equation (2) when CHPB ˆ 1:04
than on steady state performance. This phenomenon is well equivalent to 0.4 per cent HP turbine power at engine
Fig. 10 Shaft speed changes due to HP turbine fault: ———, Fig. 13 Fuel owrate change due to HP shaft bearing failure:
nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine ———, nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine
174 Y G LI
Fig. 14 Shaft speed changes due to HP shaft bearing failure:

Fig. 16 Total temperature changes due to HP shaft bearing
———, nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine
failure: ———, nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine
maximum power condition. It can be seen that the difference

between the nominal and the degraded engine is very small detect the faults than diagnostic systems using steady
at idle before the acceleration. Then, the acceleration process state measurements, especially when measurement noises
is obviously delayed for the degraded engine owing to exist.
degraded components and the impact from the control
schedule. When the engine reaches its steady state condition
after the acceleration, the difference between the nominal 4 NON-LINEAR MODEL-BASED METHOD
and degraded engine become small again. In addition, there
is no difference in fuel owrate for the nominal and degraded The diagnostic method used in this paper is a non-linear
engine after the acceleration because the fuel owrate model based approach, and the idea of the model is
reaches its maximum value controlled by the control illustrated in Fig. 17. It is assumed that the engine model
schedule. is able to simulate the performance of the real engine
Correspondingly, the fault signatures expressed by the accurately. The real engine component parameter vector x
accumulated deviation [equation (5)] are much larger than determines the engine measurable parameter vector z. With
the fault signatures expressed by the traditionally de ned an initial guessed parameter vector x̂, the engine model
steady state deviation [equation (4)]. For example, many
accumulated deviations due to LP or HP turbine fault are z…t† ˆ F‰x…t†; mf …t†Š …7†
roughly doubled or tripled compared with those of steady
state deviations (Figs 7 and 9), while for an HP bearing where
fault the difference is even more signi cant (Fig. 8). The
deviation in the fuel owrate behaves differently compared 2 3
ZIPC
with those of other measurable parameters (Figs 7 to 9), 6 GIPC 7
where the steady state deviation of the fuel owrate is 2 3 6 7
NHP 6 ZHPC 7
zero while the corresponding accumulated deviation is 6 7
6 NLP 7 6 GHPC 7
signi cant. Therefore, diagnostic systems using transient 6 7 6 7
6 mf 7 6 Z 7
measurements have greater potential accurately to 6 7 6 b 7
zˆ6 7
6 Pt2 7 and xˆ6 7
6 ZHPT 7 …8†
6 T 7 6G 7
6 t2 7 6 HPT 7
4 P 5 6Z 7
t5 6 LPT 7
Tt5 6G 7
6 LPT 7
4C 5
HPB
CLPB
Fig. 15 Total pressure changes due to HP shaft bearing failure:

———, nominal engine; – – –, degraded engine Fig. 17 Non-linear model based diagnostic model
A05302 # IMechE 2003
Table 1 Engine measurement set (z) 5 GENETIC ALGORITHM

Parameter Unit De nition
NHP % Relative HP shaft speed
There are different conventional optimization methods avail-
NLP % Relative LP shaft speed able for the minimization required in the nonlinear model
mf kg/s Fuel owrate based diagnostic approach. Unfortunately, they may get
Pt2 kPa HP compressor exit total pressure
Tt2 K HP compressor exit total temperature
stuck at a local minimum because of the nature of the
Pt5 kPa LP turbine exit pressure approaches. In this paper, a genetic algorithm (GA) is used
Tt5 K LP turbine exit temperature in the minimization process.
Genetic algorithms employ a search and optimization
technique. Compared with conventional optimization meth-
ods. GAs have several distinctive features:
(also described in Tables 1 and 2) produces a predicted 1. No derivatives are needed, so any non-smooth function
measurable parameter vector ẑ. An optimization process is can be optimized.
applied to minimize the objective function de ned in 2. Constraints can be dealt with in a very different way,
equation (9) or (10), the idea of which is borrowed from such as by means of penalty functions or design of
references [14] and [15] with the difference that the objec- speci c operations.
tive function de ned by equation (9) or (10) uses the integral 3. Global search is used to avoid getting stuck at a local
of the measurable parameters in the period of acceleration minimum.
while the objective function in references [14] and [15] uses 4. Probabilistic rather than deterministic transition rules are
the values of the measurable parameters at steady state used to create the next generation of strings from the
conditions current one.
Three operations are typically used in a genetic algorithm:
„t
‰^zi …t† ¡ zi …t†Š dt
N
X t0 1. The selection operation chooses the strings for the
Objective function ˆ „t …9† next generation according to a ‘survival of the ttest’
t0 i dt i
iˆ1 z s
P Ji criterion.
N
X jˆJi0 ‰^zij …tj † ¡ zij …tj †Š 2. The crossover operation allows information exchange
Objective function ˆ P Ji …10† between strings in the form of swapping of parts of
iˆ1 jˆJi zij …tj † si
0 the parameter vector in an attempt to obtain better
strings.
3. The mutation operation introduces new or prematurely
The standard deviation si accounts for the measurement lost information in the form of random changes applied
uncertainty and is calculated on the basis of the assumption to randomly chosen vector components.
of Gaussian distribution for measurement noises and the
noise level given by Dyson and Doel [24]. It is also assumed A GA/evolution strategy function optimization package,
that the same transient process is used to obtain both the GENIAL 1.1, developed by Widell [25], is used to minimize
predicted and measured engine measurable parameters. The the objective function. It uses real-number encoding and is
search for the minimum of the objective function is an written in FORTRAN 77. Three major modules are used by
iterative procedure. When a best estimation of engine GENIAL, the settings of which are given in Table 3. It is
component parameter vector x̂ is found, the objective freely available at the website and provides a convenient
function reaches its minimum. interface for different applications.
Table 2 Fault classes and implanted engine single-component fault cases

Faulty Component Implanted
Fault class component parameters (x) faults
FC1 IP compressor ZIPC Thermal ef ciency
GIPC Flow capacity
FC2 HP compressor ZHPC Thermal ef ciency ¡2% Case 1
GHPC Flow capacity ¡4% Case 1
FC3 Combustor Zb Combustion ef ciency
FC4 HP turbine ZHPT Thermal ef ciency ¡2% Case 2
GHPT Flow capacity ‡4% Case 2
FC5 LP turbine ZLPT Thermal ef ciency
GLPT Flow capacity
FC6 HP shaft bearings CHPB Friction coef cient 1.04 Case 3
FC7 LP shaft bearings CLPB Friction coef cient
176 Y G LI
Table 3 Module setting of DENIAL program the component parameters used to described the faults are
Evolution module listed in Table 2.
Function User function (engine model) Direct search for a gas turbine fault within an 11-
Worst tness 1.E20
Problem type Minimization dimensional space corresponding to 11 potentially degraded
Number of variables 1 or 2 component (independent) parameters with seven measure-
Number of evolutions 300 ments (dependent parameters) is inaccurate because the
Population module number of independent parameters is less than the number
Population size 90
Reproduction model Steady state without duplicates of dependent parameters, and it is very time consuming even
Parent selection method Stochastic tournament if a solution can be obtained. Based on the fact that a single
Replacement method Exponential ranking engine component fault is the most common case in fault
Reproduction module diagnosis of gas turbine engines, the seven fault classes
Number of operators 2
Uniform arithmetical crossover 35.0, 1.0, 0.5 shown in Table 2 with corresponding parameters to describe
Uniform creep 5.0, 0.7, 0.001 the faults are considered, where each single-component fault
is regarded as one fault class. Therefore, seven separate
searches are carried out to isolate a component fault, where
6 FAULT DIAGNOSIS AND ANALYSIS it is assumed that in each search only one class of fault may
occur. By comparing the seven objective functions obtained
In order to diagnose the faults of the model engine by using in the seven searches, the lowest objective function among all
transient measurements during the acceleration process, the fault classes indicates the most likely fault. This approach
typical engine measurable parameters are chosen (Table 1). has the advantages that the searched result for any of the fault
In transient measurement, the time constants of sensors, classes in one- or two-dimensional space (corresponding to
especially thermocouples, will cause delay in the measure- one or two component parameters describing one fault class)
ment and therefore have an in uence on the measurement is unique owing to highly redundant (seven) measurements,
accuracy, which must be taken into account in real applica- and the computation time is much shorter than direct search
tions with proper calibration and correction. In this study, in 11-dimensional space. This method was introduced by
the effect of time constants is ignored for simplicity. Zedda and Singh [14, 15].
Sensor noise is found to be insensible to the accumulated In the present paper, three engine fault cases are studied,
deviations because the in uence of measurement noise and the search results are shown in Table 4. It is obvious that,
becomes very small when the accumulated deviation is calcu- for each of the faults, the diagnostic system searches all
lated with integration [equation (5) or (6)]. Therefore, sensor possible fault classes and only obtains the minimum objective
noise is not considered in this study. In addition, all the sensors function when the correct fault class is searched. Furthermore,
are assumed to be fault free for simplicity, although the the faulty component is easy to pick up correctly because the
diagnosticapproach has the capabilityof tackling sensor faults. objective function corresponding to the faulty component is
To simplify the analysis, it is assumed that only single much smaller than the others. The approach proves to be able
engine components may be faulty and seven major engine to identify any of these component faults effectively. This is
single-component faults are taken into account. Simulated due to the fact that the fault signatures expressed by accumu-
transient measurements of the engine implanted with three lated deviations are magni ed during the acceleration
engine component faults are used to test the effectiveness of compared with the fault signatures expressed by steady state
the diagnostic approach. The three implanted fault cases and deviations. Consequently, the fault signatures of the three
Table 4 Searching for the implanted single component faults

Search results for three fault cases
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Component
parameters Predicted Predicted Predicted
Fault and implanted component Objective component Objective component Objective
class faults Search range deviation function deviation function deviation function
FC1 ZIPC ¡5 to 0% 2.174 75.08 56.68
GIPC ¡5 to 0%
FC2 ZHPC ¡2% ¡5 to 0% ¡1.94% 0.242 15.27 7.107
GHPC ¡4% ¡5 to 0% ¡3.86%
FC3 Zb ¡5 to 0% 68.1 47.91 67.10
FC4 ZHPT ¡2% ¡5 to 0% 5.016 ¡2.07% 0.164 5.309
GHPT ‡4% ¡5 to ‡5% ‡3.88%
FC5 ZLPT ¡5 to 0% 2.331 31.19 21.10
GLPT ¡5 to ‡5%
FC6 CHPB 1.04 0–1.08 6.010 10.13 1.04 0.0425
FC7 CLPB 0–1.20 4.673 58.27 37.46
A05302 # IMechE 2003
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approach to identify and quantify the faults accurately. Estimating in- ight engine performance variations using
Search for some fault classes (FCs), such as FC1 [inter- Kalman lter concepts. AIAA-89-2584, 1989.
mediate pressure (IP) compressor fault], FC2 (HP compres- 8 Kerr, L. J., Nemec, T. S. and Gallops, G. W. Real-time
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