C H A P T E R

28
Arsenic in Rice: Sources and Human Health
Risk
Mohammad Azizur Rahman*, Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman†, Ravi Naidu†
*University of Technology, Centre for Environmental Sustainability, Faculty of Science, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia, †University of South Australia, Center for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR),
Mawson Lakes, South Australia, Australia; and Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and
Remediation of the Environment (CRC-CARE), Salisbury South, South Australia, Australia

INTRODUCTION extensively, particularly during the dry season, to irri-

Arsenic is ubiquitous in the environment,1 and is
released to it through natural phenomena and anthropo-
genic inputs. Arsenic is also redistributed in the environ-
ment by rain, underground water, and human activities.
Although arsenic in the environment comes mainly
from minerals and geogenic sources, human activities
such as mining, burning of fossil fuels, and indiscrimi-
nate use of arsenical pesticides during the early to mid-
1900s resulted in extensive soil contamination.2 A large
number of sites around the globe have been reported
to be contaminated by arsenic from natural and anthro-
pogenic sources.3,4 Widespread human exposure to
arsenic from drinking water and foods, and associated
incidences of human health hazards (non-carcinogenic
effects, including dermal symptoms, respiratory prob-
lems, neurologic complications, obstetric effects, etc.,
and carcinogenic effects on different organs, affecting the
skin, lung, bladder, liver etc.) have been a growing con-
cern during the past three decades globally.4,5 Arsenic
in groundwater has been reported in many parts of the
world, including North America, Europe, Australia, and
several Latin American countries.5–8 However, ground-
water contamination with elevated levels of arsenic and
associated health problems has reached critical levels
in recent years in several South (S) and Southeast (SE)
Asian countries.9
Arsenic-contaminated groundwater is used not only
for drinking purposes but also for the irrigation of
crops in these countries, particularly for the staple food,
paddy rice (Oryza sativa L.), in Bangladesh and other S
and SE Asian countries.10,11 Groundwater has been used
gate rice in Bangladesh.11 Background levels of arsenic in
paddy soils range from 4 to 8 mg/kg,12,13 and can reach
up to 83 mg/kg in areas where the paddy field has been
irrigated with elevated levels of arsenic-contaminated
groundwater.13 Other countries in S and SE Asia affected
with arsenic in groundwater include several states of
India, Nepal, Myanmar, Pakistan, Vietnam, Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Taiwan, and several
provinces of China,6,9,14–16 and, more recently, the low-
lands of Sumatra in Indonesia.17 Surface-water contami-
nation of arsenic in Thailand is mainly due to industrial
activities.4 In Bangladesh and the West Bengal state of
India, arsenic in groundwater has been recognized as the
widest environmental and human health disaster, with
an estimate of more than 100 million people at risk from
arsenic poisoning,4,18 while about 700,000 people have
already been affected by arsenic-related diseases in S
and SE Asia.19
Because of high levels of arsenic in paddy soils, from
contaminated underground irrigation water,11,13 rice
contains relatively higher amounts of arsenic20–22 com-
pared to other agricultural crops.23,24 The concentration
of arsenic and its chemical forms in rice varies consider-
ably depending on rice variety25 and geographical varia-
tion.20,26 Inorganic arsenic (iAs) species dominate over
organo-arsenic (orgAs) species in both uncooked rice
and cooked rice,27 and the dietary intake of arsenic in the
human body depends on the type of rice consumed and
on the cooking process used.28–32 A large population in
Asian arsenic-endemic areas lives on a subsistence diet
of rice. As well as daily water consumption of 4–6 L,33
the average daily rice consumption by an adult of this

Wheat and Rice in Disease Prevention and Health 365

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-401716-0.00028-3 © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
366 28.  RICE CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF INORGANIC ARSENIC
region, particularly in Bangladesh and West Bengal
(India), is between 400 and 650 g.34 Therefore, second to
water, rice constitutes the largest dietary source of arse-
nic for humans.35 When the high concentration of iAs,36
cooking method, and high consumption rate are taken
into account, rice is considered to be a major threat to
human health in arsenic-endemic S and SE Asia.
Arsenic poisoning is greatest in Bangladesh, followed
by West Bengal, India. However, numerous cases have
now been reported from many countries, including
Chile, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Pakistan, Nepal, Viet-
nam, Taiwan, Iran, Argentina, Finland, the United States,
several provinces in China, and several other Indian
states. Arsenic exposure to humans is not restricted to the
arsenic-contaminated countries. Hundreds of thousands
of people worldwide are also facing slow poisoning and
risk of death from arsenic in their daily diets. The pos-
sibility of human exposure to arsenic is increasing with
the expansion of the global food trade. Arsenic in foods
from arsenic-endemic areas will pose a potential health
risk for the people of those countries where arsenic con-
tamination of drinking water is not reported. Thus, arse-
nic in foods and its subsequent impacts on human health
is not a regional issue but an important global issue. In
this chapter, the sources of arsenic in rice and the health
risk of arsenic from a rice diet are discussed.
ARSENIC IN RICE GRAIN
The significant number of articles published on arse-
nic concentrations in rice grain in recent years implies
that the dietary intake of arsenic form rice has received
the attention of the wider scientific community.13,27,30,36–42
The high arsenic content in rice is a significant concern
for arsenic-affected countries, as well as for countries
that import rice from arsenic-affected countries. Arsenic
concentrations in rice grain from diverse origins is pre-
sented in Table 28.1.11,13,20,21,23,27,39,43–54
Bangladesh is one of the highly arsenic-contaminated
countries.55 Rice grain collected from the arsenic-con-
taminated western part of Bangladesh had arsenic lev-
els of 0.03–1.84 μg/g dry weight (dry wt).11 In another
study, arsenic concentrations in rice collected from the
fields of the southern part of Bangladesh were found to
be between 0.04 and 0.92 μg/g dry wt.13 However, arse-
nic concentrations in rice collected from markets across
the country were found to be 0.18–0.31 μg/g dry wt.13
It is interesting that arsenic concentrations in rice vary
with the sampling site and rice growing season, both
of which are related to the arsenic concentration in irri-
gation water. Other studies also showed high levels of
arsenic in Bangladeshi rice. For example, Islam et al.56
reported 0.05–2.05 μg/g dry wt of arsenic in rice grain
collected from southern Bangladesh, while Rahman
A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH
et al.30 reported 0.57–0.69 μg/g dry wt of arsenic in rice
collected from a highly arsenic-contaminated area of the
country. All these studies have revealed high arsenic lev-
els in Bangladeshi rice grain.
Rice from the Indian state of West Bengal also con-
tains high levels of arsenic. Williams et al.27 reported
0.05 μg/g dry wt of arsenic (0.03–0.08 μg/g dry wt) in
white basmati rice collected from Indian supermarkets.
Meharg et al.20 found 0.07 μg/g dry wt of arsenic (0.07–
0.31 μg/g dry wt, n = 133) in Indian white rice. Other
studies also reported high levels of arsenic in rice grain
from West Bengal (0.11–0.44 μg/g dry wt53 and 0.03–
0.48 μg/g dry wt).52 The Nadia district in West Bengal
is one of the highly arsenic-contaminated areas in India,
and arsenic concentrations in rice grain (either collected
directly from farmers or purchased from local markets)
ranged between 0.02 and 0.17 μg/g dry wt with a mean
of 0.13 μg/g dry wt (n = 50).39
A number of studies have shown high levels of arsenic
in Taiwanese rice. Rice collected directly from Taiwanese
farms was reported to have an arsenic concentration of
0.76 μg/g dry wt.49 A market basket survey, conducted
by Lin et al.,50 reported < 0.10–0.63 μg/g dry wt of arse-
nic in Taiwanese rice, which is a comparable level to that
reported by Williams et al.27 The concentration of arsenic
in Vietnamese rice was found to be 0.03–0.47 μg/g dry
wt.27,51 Thai rice has also been reported to contain high
levels of arsenic (0.11 ± 0.01 μg/g dry wt).27 A recent mar-
ket basket survey reported that arsenic concentrations in
Thai rice ranged between 0.01 and 0.39 μg/g dry wt, with
a mean of 0.14 μg/g dry wt (n = 54).20 Comparing this
with the previous reports of Williams et al.27, the higher
arsenic concentrations in Thai rice found in a recent study
by Meharg et al.20 suggest that arsenic levels in Thai rice
have increased in recent years. A considerable amount of
arsenic has also been found in rice from the USA. A mar-
ket basket survey conducted by Schoof et al.23 reported
that total arsenic concentrations in rice from the USA
(“American rice”) were 0.20–0.46 μg/g dry wt, while
Heitkemper et al.45 found levels of 0.11–0.34 μg/g dry wt.
A recent study reported 0.03–0.66 μg/g dry wt of arse-
nic in American rice,20 which is much higher than that
reported by Williams et al.27 The studies reveal that arse-
nic-contaminated rice is a significant source of dietary
arsenic for the people of arsenic-affected areas, as well as
for people of those countries that import rice from con-
taminated regions.
ARSENIC SPECIATION IN RICE GRAIN
Inorganic arsenic (iAs) species are more toxic than
orgAs species.57,58 Pentavalent methylarsenic species
(DMAAV and MMAAV) are considered to be non-toxic.59
Therefore, arsenic speciation in rice is considered to be
 TABLE 28.1  Total (tAs), Inorganic (iAs), and Organic (orgAs) Arsenic Concentrations (μg/g dry wt.) in Rice Grain from Different Countries.

tAs iAs orgAs % of iAs

Origin Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Reference

Australia 0.03 0.02–0.04 – – – – – Williams et al.13

1.25 – 0.18 – 1.07 – 86 – Juhasz et al.43

Bangladesh 0.13 0.02–0.33 0.08 0.01–0.21 – – 61 – Meharg et al.20

0.50 0.03–1.84 – – – – – Meharg and

Rahman11

0.34 0.15–0.59 – – – – – – Williams et al.27

0.39 0.26–0.58 0.39 0.26–0.58 0.005 0.001–0.010 100 – Williams et al.27

0.23 0.18–0.31 0.16 0.11–0.22 – – 65 60–71 Williams et al.13

0.24 0.21–0.27 0.20 0.17–0.22 – – 82 81–83 Williams et al.13

A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH

0.13 0.03–0.30 0.08 0.01–0.21 0.02 < LOD–0.05 60 44–86 Ohno et al.44

Arsenic Speciation in Rice Grain

0.69 0.41–0.98 0.31 0.23–0.39 0.23 0.05–0.43 44 45–59 Sun et al.21

Canada 0.11 – 0.08 – 0.01 – 76 – Heitkemper

et al.45

0.02 – < LOD – 0.01 – 71 – Ohno et al.44

China 0.14 0.02–0.46 0.16 0.07–0.38 – – 87 – Williams et al.27

0.12 0.07–0.19 – – – – – – Williams et al.13

0.82 0.46–1.18 0.50 0.25–0.76 0.10 0.07–0.12 60 55–64 Sun et al.21

0.49 0.31–0.70 – – – – – – Xie and Huang46

0.93 – – – – – – – Liu et al.47

Egypt 0.05 0.01–0.58 – – – – – – Williams et al.27

Europe 0.15 0.13–0.20 0.08 0.06–0.10 0.04 0.04–0.06 52 44–62 Ohno et al.44

France 0.28 0.09–0.56 – – – – – – Williams et al.27

India 0.07 0.07–0.31 0.03 0.02–0.07 – – 43 – Williams et al.27

0.05 0.03–0.08 0.04 0.02–0.05 up to 0.01 < LOD–0.01 56 36–67 Ohno et al.44

Italy 0.15 0.07–0.33 0.11 0.07–0.16 – – 73 – Williams et al.27

0.21 0.19–0.22 0.12 0.10–0.14 0.07 0.05–0.09 57 53–65 Ohno et al.44

Japan 0.19 0.07–0.42 – – – – – – Williams et al.27

Philippines 0.07 0.00–0.25 – – – – – – Williams et al.13

Spain 0.20 0.05–0.82 – – – – – – Williams et al.27

367
(Continued)
 TABLE 28.1  Total (tAs), Inorganic (iAs), and Organic (orgAs) Arsenic Concentrations (μg/g dry wt.) in Rice Grain from Different Countries—cont’d

368
tAs iAs orgAs % of iAs

Origin Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Reference

0.34 0.29–0.41 0.14 0.10–0.20 – – 41 34–48 Laparra et al.48

0.17 – 0.08 – 0.05 – 48 – Ohno et al.44

Thailand 0.14 0.01–0.39 – – – – – – Williams et al.27

0.10 0.06–0.14 – – – – – – Williams et al.13

0.11 0.08 – 0.03 – 74 – Ohno et al.44

Taiwan 0.76 0.51 – 0.11 – 67 – Schoof et al.49

0.05 <0.10–0.14 – – – – – – Lin et al.50

28.  RICE CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF INORGANIC ARSENIC

0.10 <0.10–0.63 – – – – – – Lin et al.50

0.19 0.06–0.17 0.12 – 0.04 – 61 – Schoof et al.49

A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH

0.20 0.19–0.22 0.11 – 0.05 – 58 – Schoof et al.49

USA 0.25 0.03–0.66 0.10 0.05–0.15 – – 40 – Williams et al.27

0.30 0.2–0.46 – – – – – – Schoof et al.23

0.28 0.21–0.34 0.10 0.02–0.11 0.18 0.17–0.24 35 9–32 Heitkemper

et al.45

0.26 0.11–0.40 0.08 0.02–0.14 0.14 0.04–0.26 35 10–41 Ohno et al.44

Vietnam 0.21 0.03–0.47 – – – – – – Phuong et al.51

West Bengal 0.14 0.02–0.40 – – – – – – Pal et al.52

(India)

0.25 0.14–0.48 – – – – – – Pal et al.52

0.08 0.03–0.16 – – – Pal et al.52

0.13 0.02–0.17 – – – – – – Mondal and

Polya39

0.21 0.11–0.44 – – – – – – Roychowdhury

et al.53

0.33 0.18–0.43 – – – – – – Roychowdhury

et al.53

LOD, Level of detection.

Adapted from Rahman and Hasegawa54, with permission from Elsevier.
 Arsenic in Cooked Rice
important for its possible impacts on human health.
Arsenic concentration in rice grain is higher than in other
cereal grains (by up to 10-fold42) because rice plants are
generally grown in flooded conditions where arsenic
mobility and bioavailability is high.60 On average, around
50% of the total arsenic in rice grain is iAs (varying from
10% to 90%), while the remaining fraction is DMAA,
with trace amounts of MMAA is some samples.60 Asian
rice mainly contains toxic iAs, while American and Aus-
tralian rice contains non-toxic methylarsenicals.27,43,61
Therefore, the high arsenic concentration in Asian rice
makes it a threat to human health compared to rice from
other arsenic-contaminated areas.54 The concentration of
arsenic speciation in rice grain from different origins is
also presented in Table 28.1.
Although AsIII predominates over AsV in rice in most
cases,27,62 arsenic speciation in rice showed significant
inconsistency with origin, types, and varieties.20,27 With
the exception of rice from the USA, iAs is the main spe-
cies in rice grain from other geographical areas around
the world.13,20,21,23,25,27,60,63,64 The ratios of iAs species in
American, European, Bangladeshi, and Indian rice were
reported to be about 42 (n = 12), 64 (n = 7), 80 (n = 11),
and 81% (n = 15), respectively, of the recoverable arse-
nic.27 A number of studies reported that approximately
44–86% of the total arsenic in Bangladeshi rice is inor-
ganic,13,20,21,27 while a field study conducted by Ohno
et al.44 reported up to 100% iAs in Bangladeshi rice. Up to
67% of the total arsenic has been reported to be inorganic
in Taiwanese rice,49 while Thai rice contained about 91%
iAs.27 The ratio of iAs in Chinese rice was found to be
about 60–87%,20,21 while the concentrations of iAs spe-
cies in European and Italian rice were about 44–62% and
57–73%, respectively.20,27 Spanish rice also contained a
higher percentage of iAs (about 34–48%),27,48 but this
was less than in French and Italian rice. The fractions of
iAs in Australian and American rice were about 14% and
40%, respectively – the lowest levels compared to rice
from other countries (Table 28.1).
Methylarsenic species are the only orgAs species that
have been found in rice. Australian and American rice
mostly contained less/non-toxic methylarsenic spe-
cies,27,43 whereas European and Asian rice contained
highly toxic iAs species.62,65 A market basket survey con-
ducted by Williams and colleagues27 showed that methy-
larsenic (almost entirely as DMAAV) is the major species
(between 36–65%, with a mean of 54%) in American rice.
Another study by Heitkemper and colleagues45 reported
a much higher percentage (70–80%, with a mean of 64%)
of methylarsenic (mainly DMAAV) in North American
rice. Australian rice also contains mainly orgAs species
(86%).43 Levels of methylarsenic species were found to
be 12–43% in Bangladeshi rice,21,27 9–50% in Canadian
rice,27,45 10–15% in Chinese rice,21 30% in European
rice,27 12% in Indian rice,27 26–40% in Italian rice,27 29%
A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH
369
in Spanish rice,27 27% in Thai rice,27 and 14–25% in Tai-
wanese rice.49 The variations in orgAs concentration
in rice are related to the sources of arsenic contamina-
tion and the uptake efficiency of arsenic species by rice
varieties.
ARSENIC IN COOKED RICE
Arsenic concentration and speciation in cooked
rice depends on the cooking method,66 which differs
from country to country and even region to region of
a country. People of the South Asian countries usually
cook rice with excess water, whereas Southeast Asians
do not use excess water when cooking rice. A number
of studies showed that the cooking methods influence
the retention of total as well as arsenic species in cooked
rice.30,31,37,52,67,68 For example, elevated levels of total
arsenic were found in cooked rice in arsenic-contam-
inated areas of Bangladesh.69 The additional arsenic in
cooked rice is supposed to come from arsenic-contami-
nated cooking water, resulting either from chelation by
rice grains or due to evaporation during the cooking pro-
cess.70 However, it was found that if the cooking water
contained a low level of arsenic, the total arsenic concen-
tration in cooked rice was less in cooked rice than in rice
grain.37,52 A study by Sengupta et al.67 showed that cook-
ing rice with a high volume of low-arsenic water and dis-
carding the gruel after cooking (the traditional cooking
method in India) removed up to 57% of the total arsenic
in cooked rice. This removal of arsenic occurred irrespec-
tive of the concentration of arsenic in the rice grain; this
may be because the water-soluble arsenic in rice, which
was released into the cooking water during cooking pro-
cess, was discarded with the gruel after cooking. How-
ever, the arsenic concentration in cooked rice increases
significantly when the arsenic concentration in the cook-
ing water is high.30,67 This is because arsenic is absorbed
by rice (through osmosis) from cooking water during the
cooking process.
A large number of people in South Asian countries use
parboiled rice (i.e., rice that has been boiled and dried
before dehusking/milling), while the people of East and
Southeast Asian countries and Japan use only non-par-
boiled rice for cooking. In some countries, people cook
rice with excess water and discard the gruel after cook-
ing. This cooking procedure is popular in South Asian
countries. On the other hand, cooking rice with limited
water (hence no gruel remains after cooking) is a popular
method worldwide. The preparation of rice for cooking,
and the cooking methods, have a substantial influence
on arsenic retention in cooked rice.30,31,67 The arsenic
concentration in non-parboiled rice cooked with limited
water was found to be 0.75 ± 0.04 to 1.09 ± 0.06 μg/g dry
wt, which was about 13–37% higher than that in rice
370 28.  RICE CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF INORGANIC ARSENIC
grain and 27–60% higher than that in rice cooked with
excess water.30 Cooking rice with excess water results
in a decrease in the concentrations of total and iAs in
cooked rice when the gruel is discarded, while arsenic
concentration increases significantly when rice is cooked
with limited water and the gruel is not discarded after
cooking. For example, Raab and colleagues68 found that
cooking rice with excess water reduced total and iAs in
cooked rice by 35% and 45%, respectively, while cooking
with limited water did not remove arsenic substantially.
ARSENIC SPECIATION IN COOKED RICE
Arsenic speciation in cooked rice depends mainly on
its speciation in the rice grain and in cooking water. In a
study by Laparra et al.,48 the effect of arsenic in cooking
water on total and iAs retention in cooked rice was inves-
tigated. Total arsenic concentrations in raw basmati and
white rice collected from Spanish supermarkets were
0.05 ± 0.001 and 0.13 ± 0.008 μg/g dry wt, respectively. No
substantial modifications or changes in total and iAs con-
centrations in cooked rice were found when the rice was
cooked with uncontaminated water. When the rice was
cooked with water containing 0.6 μg/L of AsV, total arse-
nic concentrations in cooked basmati and round white
rice were increased to 2.36 ± 0.08 and 2.29 ± 0.05 μg/g dry
wt, of which iAs were 96 and 81%, respectively. Total
and iAs concentrations were 1.96 ± 0.01 and 1.66 ± 0.002
μg/g dry wt, respectively, when the rice was cooked
with water containing 0.4 μg/L AsV, and thire concentra-
tions were 4.21 ± 0.09 and 3.73 ± 0.04 μg/g dry wt, respec-
tively, when the rice was cooked with water containing
1.0 μg/L AsV. The results indicate that arsenic speciation
is not changed substantially during the cooking pro-
cess, and the total arsenic concentration in cooked rice
is proportional to its concentration in cooking water. The
retention of total and iAs in cooked rice also varies for
rice type.
SOURCES OF ARSENIC IN RICE
Rice, the main cereal crop in many countries, includ-
ing arsenic-endemic Bangladesh, West Bengal (India),
Thailand, and Vietnam, needs a substantial amount of
water for cultivation. In many S and SE Asian countries,
underground water is the main source for rice cultiva-
tion during the dry season. Recently, it has become
apparent that arsenic-contaminated underground irri-
gation water is adding a significant amount of arsenic
to paddy soils and to rice, which poses a serious threat
to sustainable rice cultivation in this region.11,55,61–74 Due
to the decreased rainfall, even in the monsoon season,
the dependency on groundwater for rice cultivation is
A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH
considered likely to increase in this region in the com-
ing years in order to increase crop production to meet
the demands of the increasing population. This practice
may increase additional arsenic deposition in paddy
soil. Thus, inorganic arsenic-rich underground irrigation
water is the main source of arsenic in rice in Asian arse-
nic-endemic countries. On the other hand, arsenical pes-
ticides are the main source of arsenic for American rice.
In addition, microbial methylation of inorganic arsenic
to orgAs in the rice field (in water and rhizosphere soil)
would also contribute to the orgAs content in rice.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK OF ARSENIC
FROM RICE DIET
Although there are many possible pathways of
human exposure to arsenic,39 epidemiological data pub-
lished over the past few years have revealed that con-
taminated drinking groundwater is the major source of
dietary arsenic in many countries, especially in S and SE
Asia, followed by rice.23,44,50,75–78 It was estimated that, in
a typical Bangladeshi diet, the daily consumption of rice
with a total arsenic level of 0.08 μg/g dry wt would be
equivalent to a drinking water arsenic level of 10 μg/L.13
A number of arsenic speciation studies showed that 42–
91% of the total arsenic in S and SE Asian rice consists
of toxic inorganic species,20,23,27,45,49,60,79 while the major
species in American rice is DMAA.27 Other studies also
showed that iAs in rice products such as breakfast cere-
als, rice crackers, rice milk, baby rice, and other rice con-
diments is also high (75–90%).64,80,81 Total30,37,48,52,67,70
and iAs48,82 concentrations in cooked rice were found to
be increased due to cooking with arsenic-rich water.48,68
The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of arsenic
in rice are two important factors that have substantial
influence on arsenic toxicity in humans. The bioacces-
sibility and bioavailability mainly depend on the arse-
nic speciation in rice, and the toxic iAs species is readily
assimilated into bloodstream.11 Therefore, the health
risk of iAs is greater than that of orgAs species. Lap-
arra et al.48 investigated the bioavailability and bioac-
cessibility of iAs in cooked rice to assess the potential
toxicological risk of this species to human. Total and iAs
concentrations in the bioaccessible fraction of cooked
rice were 1.06–3.39 μg/g dry wt (> 90% of the total arse-
nic in cooked rice) and 0.80–3.10 μg/g dry wt, respec-
tively, indicating that a significant fraction of iAs can be
available for intestinal absorption. To estimate the bio-
availability (retention, transport, and uptake) of iAs to
humans, bioaccessible fractions of arsenic in cooked rice
were added to Caco-2 cells.48 Results showed that arse-
nic retention, transport, and uptake by Caco-2 cells from
cooked rice were 0.60–6.40, 3.30–11.40, and 3.90–17.80%,
respectively. Considering the lowest (3.90%) and the
 Mitigation of Arsenic Exposure From Rice 371
TABLE 28.2  Total (tAs) and Inorganic (iAs) Arsenic Concentrations (μg/g dry wt) in Rice Grain, and the Contribution of iAs to the
WHO’s Recommended Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (MTDI) of iAs for Humans (2.1 μg/d per kg body wt.)13*
Contribution of iAs
Origin of rice tAs iAs iAs (%) to MTDI (%) Reference(s)

Bangladesh 0.21–0.31 0.14–0.22 71–83 48–79 Williams et al.13

Canada 0.11 0.08 76 26 Heitkemper et al.45

China 0.22 0.07 32 25 Williams et al.13

Europe 0.15 0.08 52 29 Williams et al.27

India 0.07 0.03 43 11 Meharg et al.20

Italy 0.15–0.21 0.11–0.12 57–73 39–43 Meharg et al.20, e

Spain 1.21–2.36 1.49–2.28 81–98 82–99 Laparra et al.48

Thailand 0.11 0.08 74 29 Williams et al.27

Taiwan 0.19–0.76 0.11–0.51 58–67 39–182 Schoof et al.49

USA 0.25–0.28 0.08–0.10 35–40 29–36 Heitkemper et al.45,

Meharg et al.20,
Williams et al.27

*  The WHO recommended MTDI value of iAs has been withdrawn recently. The MTDI is based on iAs concentration (%) in rice grain, a body weight of 60 kg, a consumption rate
of 0.5 kg rice grain per day, and bioavailability of iAs in cooked rice (90%).48

highest (17.80%) total arsenic uptake values in the study,
it was estimated that daily consumption of 5.7 kg or 1.2 kg
cooked rice containing 4.21 ± 0.09 or 2.29 ± 0.05 μg/g dry
wt, respectively, would be required to reach the WHO
recommended maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI)
of iAs (2.1 μg/d per kg body weight13). However, the
WHO recommended MTDI value of iAs has been with-
drawn recently. An adult male consumes about 1.5 kg
cooked rice (0.5 kg rice grain) a day in arsenic-endemic
South Asian countries, indicating that the people of this
region may reach the MTDI of arsenic just from their
rice diet. The contribution of iAs to MTDI, in rice from
a range of countries, is listed in Table 28.2.13,20,27,45,47,48
Another study by Williams et al.13 showed that the
contribution of iAs in rice to the MTDI of arsenic for a
Bangladeshi adult (assuming the body weight is 60 kg)
would be 55–79%, depending on iAs concentration in
rice and rice type. The MTDI may exceed the 100% level
when the concentration of iAs in rice is high.21,44,49
In another study, Juhasz et al.43 investigated the bio-
availability of arsenic in rice and its significance for human
health risk. In that study, the absolute bioavailability of
arsenic species (AsV, AsIII, MMAA, and DMAA) was
determined using a swine animal model. The absolute
bioavailability of iAs was highest (103.9% and 92.5% for
AsIII and AsV, respectively) followed by DMAA (33.3%)
and MMAA (16.7%).43 The contribution of rice consump-
tion to MTDI was also estimated in cooked rice of differ-
ent varieties from diverse origins. Results showed that
the consumption of Quest rice of Australian origin may
contribute 438% of the arsenic MTDI based on tAs con-
centration. However, the arsenic MTDI value would be
about 185% for Quest if the MTDI calculation were based
on arsenic speciation and bioavailability data, which
is comparable to white rice of Taiwan origin (190%;
Table 82.343) even though the tAs concentration in Quest
rice is two-fold greater than that in white rice. Thus, cal-
culation of MTDI values considering the tAs concentra-
tion in rice grain significantly overvalues arsenic intake
for varieties that mainly contain orgAs species (e.g.,
Quest rice contains 86% orgAs).43 On the other hand, if
only iAs concentration in rice is considered in the MTDI,
the calculation would not reflect the real amount of arse-
nic intake from high iAs-containing rice varieties (e.g.,
Asian rice). Therefore, the MTDI should be calculated
based on arsenic concentration, speciation, and the bio-
availability of arsenic species.
MITIGATION OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE
FROM RICE
It has been confirmed by a number of research groups
that rice represents a major route of arsenic exposure in
populations that depend on a rice diet,38,39,41 and con-
sumption of rice containing a high level of arsenic, par-
ticularly the highly toxic and bioavailable iAs species,
poses a potential health risk to human.54,83 Therefore,
how to mitigate or reduce arsenic exposure from rice
is an important concern in the scientific community. A
range of methods, from agronomic measures and plant
breeding to genetic modification, may be employed to
mitigate arsenic exposure from rice. Some of the impor-
tant and effective methods of arsenic exposure mitigation

A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH

372 28.  RICE CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF INORGANIC ARSENIC

TABLE 28.3  Assessment of the Contribution of Rice Consumption to Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (MTDI Based on the
Bioavailability of Arsenic Species)*

Contribution of MTDI (%) Based on:

Rice Variety Origin tAs iAs orgAs tAs iAs As Bioavailability

Parija Bangladesh 0.21 0.12 0.05 74 43 49

Miniket Bangladesh 0.22 0.19 0.04 77 66 70

BRRIdhan29 Bangladesh 0.30 0.21 0.03 105 75 78

White Taiwan 0.76 0.51 0.11 266 178 190

Long White USA 0.40 0.08 0.26 140 28 58

Long Brown USA 0.34 0.14 0.15 119 49 66

Basmati White India 0.05 0.03 0.01 18 12 13

Basmati Brown India 0.07 0.04 0.004 25 15 16

Medium Risotto Italy 0.22 0.14 0.08 77 50 60

Arborio Italy 0.21 0.14 0.07 74 49 56

Paella Spain 0.17 0.08 0.05 60 29 35

Long Jasmine Thailand 0.11 0.08 0.03 39 28 31

Long Wild Canada 0.11 0.08 0.009 39 29 30

Quest Australia 1.25 0.18 1.08 438 61 185

*  The contribution to MTDI (%) was calculated based on the concentration (μg/g dry wt) of arsenic species in rice grain, a body weight of 60 kg, a consumption rate of 0.42 kg dry
rice grain per day, and bioavailability factors of 0.33 and 1.0 for organic arsenic (orgAs) and inorganic arsenic (iAs), respectively, in cooked rice.43

involve agronomic measures, breeding rice varieties,
and cooking methods.
Agronomic Measures
The main sources of arsenic in rice grain are arsenic-
rich paddy soils and irrigation water. Arsenic chemistry
in paddy soils is extremely complex because of frequent
redox cycles in the soil, and arsenic uptake in rice from
soil is influenced by a range of factors, including bio-
availability, rhizosphere processes, and metabolism in
rice plants.84 Therefore, agronomic measures such as
water management55,85,86 and fertilization practices86–88
would be effective methods to reduce arsenic uptake in
rice grain.
Rice is usually grown in anaerobic (flooded) condi-
tions in which arsenic exists mainly as dissolve AsIII
form and is readily taken up by the rice plant. There-
fore, rice grown under flooded conditions was found to
accumulate much more arsenic than that grown under
aerobic conditions.89 AsV was found to be the main arse-
nic species in the aerobic soil, and arsenic accumulation
in rice grain was observed to be 10- to 15-fold higher in
flooded than in aerobically grown rice.89 Maintaining
aerobic conditions during either the vegetative or the
reproductive stage of rice growth decreases arsenic accu-
mulation in rice grain significantly compared with rice
grown under flooded conditions.86
Iron is believed to be an important factor in regulating
arsenic bioavailability and uptake in rice.90–92 Rice plants
carry oxygen from the air down their stems, and dis-
charge it in the rhizosphere through the roots.71 This cre-
ates an oxidized zone around the roots in which iron is
oxidized and precipitated to form a coating.92 AsV has a
high binding affinity with precipitated iron hydroxides,
which act as an arsenic filter to reduce arsenic uptake in
rice.90 However, sulfur was found to enhance the forma-
tion of iron plaque in the rhizosphere and reduce arse-
nic accumulation in rice.87 In another study, phosphate
fertilizer was found to decrease iron plaque formation
on rice roots and increase arsenic uptake in rice plant.88
The addition of nitrate also decreases iron plaque for-
mation on the rice root surface; however, the addition
of nitrate reduced arsenic uptake by rice plant. These
results suggest that nitrate may inhibit Fe(III) reduction
and/or stimulate nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation,
leading to arsenic co-precipitation with, or adsorption
to, Fe(III) minerals in the soil.84 Two silicon transporter
proteins, Lsi1 and Lsi2, which are highly expressed in
rice roots, can transport AsIII. Lsi2 in particular plays
an important role in the root-to-shoot transport of AsIII
and arsenic accumulation in rice grains.93 Therefore,
silicon is another important nutrient that controls arse-
nic uptake in rice grains. Silicon fertilization decreases
the total arsenic concentration in straw and grain by
78% and 16%, respectively, even though the addition of

A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH

 References
silicon increases arsenic concentration in the soil solu-
tion. Silicon decreases the iAs concentration in grain by
59% while increasing the concentration of DMAA by
33%.86
Breeding Rice Varieties
Significant genetic variations in the arsenic concen-
tration of rice grain have been reported,94 and breeding
rice varieties with low arsenic uptake would be an effec-
tive way to reduce arsenic exposure risk from rice. It has
been reported that rice cultivars with red bran had sig-
nificantly more grain arsenic than cultivars with brown
bran,94 indicating that rice cultivars with red bran were
associated with higher arsenic concentrations. A num-
ber of Bangladeshi local rice cultivars with low grain
arsenic content were also identified.94 It has been sug-
gested that some tropical japonica cultivars with low
grain arsenic levels would have the potential to be used
in breeding programs to develop rice varieties with low
arsenic uptake, and genetic studies aiming to identify
genes which decrease grain arsenic. Genetic variation in
AsIII tolerance has been reported in rice.95 Breeding of
arsenic-tolerant rice varieties would be a useful method,
for highly contaminated environments, that may reduce
the risk of arsenic exposure.
Cooking Methods
The risk of arsenic exposure from rice grain can be
reduced by cooking rice following the best method to
reduce the arsenic burden in cooked rice. A number of
studies have shown that the arsenic concentration in
cooked rice is influenced by cooking methods.22,30–32,67,68
Rice is usually cooked with a substantial amount of
water in South Asian regions. Approximately 10–35%
higher arsenic levels were found in cooked rice com-
pared to that in raw rice in arsenic-endemic areas of
Bangladesh.69 The additional arsenic is considered to
come from arsenic-contaminated cooking water, and the
increase in total arsenic concentration in cooked rice was
a result of either chelation by rice grains or evaporation
during the cooking process.70 On the other hand, parboil-
ing (boiling and drying raw rice before dehusking/mill-
ing) of raw rice decreases the arsenic concentration in rice
grain. In addition, cooking rice with excess water and
disposing of the gruel (concentrated cooking water) after
cooking also reduces arsenic concentration in cooked
rice.30 Another study which showed that cooking rice
with a high volume (excess) of water (water : rice = 6 : 1)
reduced tAs and iAs content in cooked rice by 35% and
45%, respectively.68 Irrespective of the concentration of
arsenic concentration in the raw rice and cooking water,
cooking rice with low-arsenic water following the tra-
ditional cooking method in India (washing rice three or
A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH
373
four times, cooking with a rice : water ratio of 1 : 6, and
discarding the excess water [gruel] after cooking) has
been reported to remove up to 57% of tAs from cooked
rice65. The removal of tAs may be due to the release of
water-soluble arsenic fractions from rice into the gruel,
which is then discarded.
References
1.  Tamaki S, Frankenberger WTJ. Environmental chemistry of arse-
nic. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 1992;124:79–110.
2.  Smith E, Naidu R, Alston AM. Arsenic in the soil environment: A
review. Adv Agron 1998;64:149–95.
3.  Mandal BK, Suzuki KT. Arsenic round the world: A review. Talanta
2002;58(1):201–35.
4.  Rahman MM, Naidu R, Bhattacharya P. Arsenic contamination in
groundwater in the Southeast Asia region. Environ Geochem Health
2009;31:9–21.
5.  Chatterjee D, Halder D, Majumder S, Biswas A, Nath B, Bhat-
tacharya P, et al. Assessment of arsenic exposure from groundwa-
ter and rice in Bengal Delta Region, West Bengal, India. Water Res
2010;44(19):5803–12.
6.  Nordstrom DK. Worldwide occurrences of arsenic in ground wa-
ter. Science 2002;296(5576):2143–5.
7.  Smith E, Smith J, Smith L, Biswas T, Correll R, Naidu R. Arsenic
in Australian environment: An overview. J Environ Sci Health A
2003;38(1):223–39.
8.  Smith JVS, Jankowski J, Sammut J. Natural occurrences of inorgan-
ic arsenic in the Australian coastal groundwater environment. In:
Naidu R, Smith E, Owens G, Bhattacharya P, Nadebaum P, editors.
Managing Arsenic in the Environment: From Soil to Human Health.
Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO; 2006. p. 129–53.
9.  Mukherjee A, Sengupta MK, Hossain MA, Ahamed S, Das B, Nay-
ak B, et al. Arsenic contamination in groundwater: A global per-
spective with emphasis on the Asian scenario. J Health Popul Nutr
2006;24(2):142–63.
10. Ninno Cd, Dorosh PA. Averting a food crisis: Private imports and
public targeted distribution in Bangladesh after the 1998 flood. Ag-
ric Eco 2001;25(2-3):337–46.
11. Meharg AA, Rahman M. Arsenic contamination of Bangladesh
paddy field soils: Implications for rice contribution to arsenic con-
sumption. Environ Sci Technol 2003;37(2):229–34.
12. Alam MB, Sattar MA. Assessment of arsenic contamination in
soils and waters in some areas of Bangladesh. Water Sci Technol
2000:185–92.
13. Williams PN, Islam MR, Adomako EE, Raab A, Hossain SA, Zhu
YG, et al. Increase in rice grain arsenic for regions of Bangladesh
irrigating paddies with elevated arsenic in groundwaters. Environ
Sci Technol 2006;40(16):4903–8.
14. Dahal BM, Fuerhacker M, Mentler A, Karki KB, Shrestha RR,
Blum WEH. Arsenic contamination of soils and agricultural plants
through irrigation water in Nepal. Environ Pollut 2008;155(1):157–63.
15. Winkel LHE, Trang PTK, Lan VM, Stengel C, Amini M, Ha NT,
et al. Arsenic pollution of groundwater in Vietnam exacerbated by
deep aquifer exploitation for more than a century. Proc Natl Acad
Sci 2011;108(4):1246–51.
16. Pokhrel D, Bhandari BS, Viraraghavan T. Arsenic contamination of
groundwater in the Terai region of Nepal: An overview of health
concerns and treatment options. Environ Int 2009;35(1):157–61.
17. Winkel L, Berg M, Stengel C, Rosenberg T. Hydrogeological survey
assessing arsenic and other groundwater contaminants in the low-
lands of Sumatra, Indonesia. Appl Geochem 2008;23(11):3019–28.
18. Sun G, Li X, Pi J, Sun Y, Li B, Jin Y, et al. Current research problems of
chronic arsenicosis in China. J Health Popul Nutr 2006;24(2):176–81.
374 28.  RICE CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF INORGANIC ARSENIC
19. Kemper K, Minnatullah K. Towards a More Effective Operational Re-
sponse Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in South and East Asian
Countries. Water and Sanitation Program: World Bank; 2005.
20. Meharg AA, Williams PN, Adomako E, Lawgali YY, Deacon C,
Villada A, et al. Geographical variation in total and inorgan-
ic arsenic content of polished (white) rice. Environ Sci Technol
2009;43(5):1612–7.
21. Sun GX, Williams PN, Carey AM, Zhu YG, Deacon C, Raab A,
et al. Inorganic arsenic in rice bran and its products are an or-
der of magnitude higher than in bulk grain. Environ Sci Technol
2008;42(19):7542–6.
22. Torres-Escribano S, Leal M, Velez D, Montoro R. Total and inor-
ganic arsenic concentrations in rice sold in Spain, effect of cooking,
and risk assessments. Environ Sci Technol 2008;42(10):3867–72.
23. Schoof RA, Yost LJ, Eickhoff J, Crecelius EA, Cragin DW, Meacher
DM, et al. A market basket survey of inorganic arsenic in food. Food
Chem Toxicol 1999;37(8):839–46.
24. Das HK, Mitra AK, Sengupta PK, Hossain A, Islam F, Rabbani GH.
Arsenic concentrations in rice, vegetables, a fish in Bangladesh: A
preliminary study. Environ Int 2004;30(3):383–7.
25. Booth B. Arsenic speciation varies with type of rice. Environ Sci
Technol 2008;42(10):3484–5.
26. Booth B. Arsenic in US rice varies by region. Environ Sci Technol
2007;41(7):2075–6.
27. Williams PN, Price AH, Raab A, Hossain SA, Feldmann J,
Meharg AA. Variation in arsenic speciation and concentration
in paddy rice related to dietary exposure. Environ Sci Technol
2005;39(15):5531–40.
28. Musaiger AO, D’Souza R. The effects of different methods of cook-
ing on proximate, mineral and heavy metal composition of fish
and shrimps consumed in the Arabian Gulf. Arch Latinoam Nutr
2008;58(1):103–9.
29. Ohno K, Matsuo Y, Kimura T, Yanase T, Rahman MH, Magara Y,
et al. Effect of rice-cooking water to the daily arsenic intake in
Bangladesh: Results of field surveys and rice-cooking experiments.
Water Sci Technol 2009;59(2):195–201.
30. Rahman MA, Hasegawa H, Rahman MA, Rahman MM, Miah
MAM. Influence of cooking method on arsenic retention in cooked
rice related to dietary exposure. Sci Total Environ 2006;370(1):51–60.
31. Signes A, Mitra K, Burlo F, Carbonell-Barrachina AA. Effect
of cooking method and rice type on arsenic concentration in
cooked rice and the estimation of arsenic dietary intake in a
rural village in West Bengal, India. Food Addit Contam: Part A
2008;25(11):1345–52.
32. Signes A, Mitra K, Burlo F, Carbonell-Barrachina AA. Contribution
of water and cooked rice to an estimation of the dietary intake of
inorganic arsenic in a rural village of West Bengal, India. Food Addit
Contam: Part A 2008;25(1):41–50.
33. Farmer J, Johnson L. Assessment of occupational exposure to in-
organic arsenic based on urinary concentrations and speciation of
arsenic. Br J Ind Med 1990;47(5):342.
34. Duxbury JM, Mayer AB, Lauren JG, Hassan N. Food chain aspects
of arsenic contamination in Bangladesh: Effects on quality and pro-
ductivity of rice. J Environ Sci Health A 2003;38(1):61–9.
35. Chen S, Yeh S, Yang M, Lin T. Trace element concentration and ar-
senic speciation in the well water of a Taiwan area with endemic
Blackfoot disease. Biol Trace Elem Res 1995;48(3):263–74.
36. Meharg AA. Arsenic in rice – understanding a new disaster for
South-East Asia. Trends Plant Sci 2004;9(9):415–7.
37. Bae M, Watanabe C, Inaoka T, Sekiyama M, Sudo N, Bokul MH,
et al. Arsenic in cooked rice in Bangladesh. Lancet 2002;360(9348):
1839–40.
38. Mondal D, Banerjee M, Kundu M, Banerjee N, Bhattacharya U, Giri
AK, et al. Comparison of drinking water, raw rice and cooking of
rice as arsenic exposure routes in three contrasting areas of West
Bengal, India. Environ Geochem Health 2010;32(6):463–77.
A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH
39. Mondal D, Polya DA. Rice is a major exposure route for arsenic in
Chakdaha block, Nadia district, West Bengal, India: A probabilistic
risk assessment. Appl Geochem 2008;23(11):2987–98.
40. Rahman MA, Hasegawa H, Rahman MM, Miah MA. Accu-
mulation of arsenic in tissues of rice plant (Oryza sativa L.)
and its distribution in fractions of rice grain. Chemosphere
2007;69(6):942–8.
41. Rahman MA, Hasegawa H, Rahman MM, Miah MAM, Tasmin A.
Arsenic accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.): Human exposure
through food chain. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2008;69(2):317–24.
42. Williams PN, Villada A, Deacon C, Raab A, Figuerola J, Green AJ,
et al. Greatly enhanced arsenic shoot assimilation in rice leads to
elevated grain levels compared to wheat and barley. Environ Sci
Technol 2007;41(19):6854–9.
43. Juhasz AL, Smith E, Weber J, Rees M, Rofe A, Kuchel T, et al.
In vivo assessment of arsenic bioavailability in rice and its sig-
nificance for human health risk assessment. Environ Health Persp
2006;114(12):1826–31.
44. Ohno K, Yanase T, Matsuo Y, Kimura T, Hamidur Rahman M,
Magara Y, et al. Arsenic intake via water and food by a population
living in an arsenic-affected area of Bangladesh. Sci Total Environ
2007;381(1-3):68–76.
45. Heitkemper DT, Vela NP, Stewart KR, Westphal CS. Determina-
tion of total and speciated arsenic in rice by ion chromatography
and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J Anal Atomic
Spectrom 2001;16(4):299–306.
46. Xie ZM, Huang CY. Control of arsenic toxicity in rice plants grown
on an arsenic-polluted paddy soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal
1998;29(15):2471–7.
47. Liu H, Probst A, Liao B. Metal contamination of soils and crops
affected by the Chenzhou lead/zinc mine spill (Hunan, China). Sci
Total Environ 2005;339(1-3):153–66.
48. Laparra JM, Velez D, Barbera R, Farre R, Montoro R. Bioavailabil-
ity of inorganic arsenic in cooked rice: Practical aspects for human
health risk assessments. J Agric Food Chem 2005;53(22):8829–33.
49. Schoof RA, Yost LJ, Crecelius E, Irgolic K, Goessler W, Guo HR,
et al. Dietary arsenic intake in Taiwanese districts with elevated
arsenic in drinking water. Hum Ecol Risk Ass 1998;4(1):117–35.
50. Lin HT, Wong SS, Li GC. Heavy metal content of rice and Shellfish
in Taiwan. J Food Drug Anal 2004;12(2):167–74.
51. Phuong TD, Chuong PV, Khiem DT, Kokot S. Elemental content of
Vietnamese rice. Part 1. Sampling, analysis and comparison with
previous studies. Analyst 1999;124(4):553–60.
52. Pal A, Chowdhury UK, Mondal D, Das B, Nayak B, Ghosh A, et al.
Arsenic burden from cooked rice in the populations of arsenic
affected and nonaffected areas and Kolkata city in West-Bengal,
India. Environ Sci Technol 2009;43(9):3349–55.
53. Roychowdhury T, Uchino T, Tokunaga H, Ando M. Survey of ar-
senic in food composites from an arsenic-affected area of West Ben-
gal, India. Food Chem Toxicol 2002;40(11):1611–21.
54. Rahman MA, Hasegawa H. High levels of inorganic arsenic in rice
in areas where arsenic-contaminated water is used for irrigation
and cooking. Sci Total Environ 2011;409(22):4645–55.
55. Khan MA, Islam MR, Panaullah GM, Duxbury JM, Jahiruddin M,
Loeppert RH. Accumulation of arsenic in soil and rice under wet-
land condition in Bangladesh. Plant Soil 2010;333(1-2):263–74.
56. Islam M, Jahiruddin M, Islam S. Assessment of arsenic in the
water-soil-plant systems in Gangetic floodplains of Bangladesh.
Asian J Plant Sci 2004;3(4):489–93.
57. Ng JC. Environmental contamination of arsenic and its toxicologi-
cal impact on humans. Environ Chem 2005;2(3):146–60.
58. Meharg AA, Hartley Whitaker J. Arsenic uptake and metabolism
in arsenic resistant and nonresistant plant species. New Phytol
2002;154(1):29–43.
59. Jain CK, Ali I. Arsenic: Occurrence, toxicity and speciation tech-
niques. Water Res 2000;34(17):4304–12.
 References
60. Zhu YG, Williams PN, Meharg AA. Exposure to inorganic arsenic
from rice: A global health issue? Environ Pollut 2008;154(2):169–71.
61. Zavala YJ, Gerads R, Gürleyük H, Duxbury JM. Arsenic in rice:
II. Arsenic speciation in USA grain and implications for human
health. Environ Sci Technol 2008;42(10):3861–6.
62. Zavala YJ, Gerads R, Gurleyuk H, Duxbury JM. Arsenic in Rice:
II. Arsenic speciation in USA grain and implications for human
health. Environ Sci Technol 2008;42(10):3861–6.
63. Potera C. US rice serves up arsenic. Environ Health Persp 2007;115(6)
A296-A.
64. Sun GX, Williams PN, Zhu YG, Deacon C, Carey AM, Raab A, et al.
Survey of arsenic and its speciation in rice products such as break-
fast cereals, rice crackers and Japanese rice condiments. Environ Int
2009;35(3):473–5.
65. Zavala YJ, Duxbury JM. Arsenic in rice: I. Estimating normal levels
of total arsenic in rice grain. Environ Sci Technol 2008;42(10):3856–
60.
66. Rahman MA, Hasegawa H, Rahman MM, Miah MA. Influence of
cooking method on arsenic retention in cooked rice related to di-
etary exposure. Sci Total Environ 2006;370(1):51–60.
67. Sengupta MK, Hossain MA, Mukherjee A, Ahamed S, Das B, Nay-
ak B, et al. Arsenic burden of cooked rice: Traditional and modern
methods. Food Chem Toxicol 2006;44(11):1823–9.
68. Raab A, Baskaran C, Feldmann J, Meharg AA. Cooking rice in a
high water to rice ratio reduces inorganic arsenic content. J Environ
Monit 2009;11(1):41–4.
69. Misbahuddin M. Consumption of arsenic through cooked rice.
Lancet 2003;361(9355):435–6.
70. Rahman MA, Ismail MMR, Hasegawa H. Cooking: Effects on di-
etary exposure to arsenic from rice and vegetables. In: Nriagu JO,
editor. Encyclopedia of Environmental Health. Burlington, VT: Else-
vier; 2011. p. 828–33.
71. Brammer H, Ravenscroft P. Arsenic in groundwater: A threat to
sustainable agriculture in South and South-east Asia. Environ Int
2009;35(3):647–54.
72. Khan MA, Stroud JL, Zhu YG, McGrath SP, Zhao FJ. Arsenic bio-
availability to rice is elevated in Bangladeshi paddy soils. Environ
Sci Technol 2010;44(22):8515–21.
73. Dittmar J, Voegelin A, Maurer F, Roberts LC, Hug SJ, Saha GC,
et al. Arsenic in soil and irrigation water affects arsenic uptake by
rice: Complementary insights from field and pot studies. Environ
Sci Technol 2010;44(23):8842–8.
74. Khan MA, Islam MR, Panaullah GM, Duxbury JM, Jahiruddin M,
Loeppert RH. Fate of irrigation-water arsenic in rice soils of Ban-
gladesh. Plant and Soil 2009;322(1-2):263–77.
75. Bhattacharya P, Samal AC, Majumdar J, Santra SC. Arsenic con-
tamination in rice, wheat, pulses, and vegetables: A study in
an arsenic affected area of West Bengal India. Water Air Soil Poll
2010;213(1-4):3–13.
76. Roychowdhury T, Tokunaga H, Ando M. Survey of arsenic and
other heavy metals in food composites and drinking water and es-
timation of dietary intake by the villagers from an arsenic-affected
area of West Bengal, India. Sci Total Environ 2003;308(1-3):15–35.
77. Signes-Pastor AJ, Deacon C, Jenkins RO, Haris PI, Carbonell-Bar-
rachina AA, Meharg AA. Arsenic speciation in Japanese rice drinks
and condiments. J Environ Monit 2009;11(11):1930–4.
78. Signes-Pastor AJ, Mitra K, Sarkhel S, Hobbes M, Burló F, de Groot
WT, et al. Arsenic speciation in food and estimation of the dietary
intake of inorganic arsenic in a rural village of West Bengal, India.
J Agric Food Chem 2008;56(20):9469–74.
A. OVERVIEW OF RICE AND HEALTH
375
79. Meharg AA, Lombi E, Williams PN, Scheckel KG, Feldmann J,
Raab A, et al. Speciation and localization of arsenic in white and
brown rice grains. Environ Sci Technol 2008;42(4):1051–7.
80. Meharg AA, Deacon C, Campbell RCJ, Carey AM, Williams PN,
Feldmann J, et al. Inorganic arsenic levels in rice milk exceed EU
and US drinking water standards. J Environ Monit 2008;10(4):
428–31.
81. Meharg AA, Sun G, Williams PN, Adomako E, Deacon C, Zhu YG,
et al. Inorganic arsenic levels in baby rice are of concern. Environ
Pollut 2008;152(3):746–9.
82. Smith NM, Lee R, Heitkemper DT, DeNicola Cafferky K, Haque A,
Henderson AK. Inorganic arsenic in cooked rice and vegetables
from Bangladeshi households. Sci Total Environ 2006;370(2–3):
294–301.
83. Rahman MM, Owens G, Naidu R. Arsenic levels in rice grain and
assessment of daily dietary intake of arsenic from rice in arsenic-
contaminated regions of Bangladesh - implications to groundwater
irrigation. Environ Geochem Health 2009;31:179–87.
84. Chen X-P, Zhu Y-G, Hong M-N, Kappler A, Xu Y- X. Effects of dif-
ferent forms of nitrogen fertilizers on arsenic uptake by rice plants.
Environ Toxicol Chem 2008;27(4):881–7.
85. Arao T, Kawasaki A, Baba K, Mori S, Matsumoto S. Effects of water
management on cadmium and arsenic accumulation and dimethy-
larsinic acid concentrations in Japanese rice. Environ Sci Technol
2009;43(24):9361–7.
86. Li RY, Stroud JL, Ma JF, McGrath SP, Zhao FJ. Mitigation of arsenic
accumulation in rice with water management and silicon fertiliza-
tion. Environ Sci Technol 2009;43(10):3778–83.
87. Hu Z-Y, Zhu Y-G, Li M, Zhang L-G, Cao Z-H, Smith FA. Sulfur (S)-
induced enhancement of iron plaque formation in the rhizosphere
reduces arsenic accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings. En-
viron Pollut 2007;147(2):387–93.
88. Hu Y, Li JH, Zhu YG, Huang YZ, Hu HQ, Christie P. Sequestration
of As by iron plaque on the roots of three rice (Oryza sativa L.) cul-
tivars in a low-P soil with or without P fertilizer. Environ Geochem
Health 2005;27(2):169–76.
89. Xu XY, McGrath SP, Meharg AA, Zhao FJ. Growing rice aerobi-
cally markedly decreases arsenic accumulation. Environ Sci Technol
2008;42(15):5574–9.
90. Liu WJ, Zhu YG, Smith FA, Smith SE. Do phosphorus nutrition and
iron plaque alter arsenate (As) uptake by rice seedlings in hydro-
ponic culture? New Phytol 2004;162(2):481–8.
91. Chen Z, Zhu YG, Liu WJ, Meharg AA. Direct evidence showing
the effect of root surface iron plaque on arsenite and arsenate
uptake into rice (Oryza sativa) roots. New Phytologist 2005;165(1):
91–7.
92. Liu WJ, Zhu YG, Hu Y, Williams PN, Gault AG, Meharg AA, et al.
Arsenic sequestration in iron plaque, its accumulation and spe-
ciation in mature rice plants (Oryza sativa L.). Environ Sci Technol
2006;40(18):5730–6.
93. Ma JF, Yamaji N, Mitani N, Xu XY, Su YH, McGrath SP, et al. Trans-
porters of arsenite in rice and their role in arsenic accumulation in
rice grain. Pro Natl Acad Sci 2008;105(29):9931.
94. Norton GJ, Islam MR, Deacon CM, Zhao FJ, Stroud JL, McGrath SP,
et al. Identification of low inorganic and total grain arsenic rice cul-
tivars from Bangladesh. Environ Sci Technol 2009;43(15):6070–5.
95. Norton GJ, Lou-Hing DE, Meharg AA, Price AH. Rice-arsenate in-
teractions in hydroponics: Whole genome transcriptional analysis.
J Exp Bot 2008;59(8):2267–76.