CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

In recent decades, lifestyle has been recognized as an important determinant of health

status and has become a focus of increasing research interest worldwide. The World Health

Organization (WHO) has stated that 60% of an individual’s quality of life depends on his/her

lifestyle (Ziglio, Currie & Rasmussen, 2014). Positive and healthy lifestyle practices have been

found to reduce disease occurrence and mortality rates and socio-demographic dimensions such

as sex, age, marital status, economical level, and paid employment correlate with positive

lifestyle (Hu, Lie & Willet, 2011). According to Debnatn (2021), a positive lifestyle is the

foundation of a good life. A healthy habit can change you develop a healthy lifestyle over

a period of time. “Healthy living” to most people means both physical and mental health

are in balance or functioning well together in a person. In many instances, physical and

health are closely linked, so that a change (good or bad) in one directly affected the other.

Healthful living is a lifestyle that promotes the health, healing, and happiness of all living thing.

Further, Sharma (2017) chipped in that a positive lifestyle means a positive attitude and taking

positive action. It means focusing on solutions, not on problems and constantly improving

yourself and your life. This kind of lifestyle does not depend on your circumstance, where you

live, and what you do for a living. It depends on a certain attitude and state of mind. You can

adopt this kind of lifestyle, irrespective of your financial, age, work or circumstances.

The world population is made up of slightly one-quarter of young people (United Nations

Population Fund [UNFPA], 2014). In developing countries, this group constitutes 32% of the
population and is faced with several neglected lifestyle related problems including sexual and

health problems (UNFPA, 2014). Positive lifestyle is somehow lacking among young people

both in developed and developing countries. Extensive evidence has indicated that university

students in China and Hong Kong engage in health-risk behaviours such as smoking, drinking

alcohol, lack of exercise, lack of sleep, and poor eating habits (Hu et al, 2011). In Jordan, there

are high prevalence of sexual abuse, tobacco use and depression among students (Aymar &

Marmash, 2017). In the United Kingdom people under the age of 25 years are at increased risk of

contracting sexually transmitted infections. Most university students belong to this age group

(Rosario, & Corliss, 2014). Further In Germany, alcohol consumption among higher education

students is a matter of public health concern, particularly hazardous drinking (Berwick, Mulhem,

Barham & Trusler, 2014). According to UNESCO, Students in Asian universities are typically

young adults in their twenties; This group of population is particularly involved in risky sexual

behaviours, which include, but not limited to, having sex with multiple partners, having

unprotected sex (without condoms), having sexual intercourse with strangers, and having

intoxicated sex (Khawcharoenporn, Chunloy, & Apisarnthanarak, 2015).

African students account for more than one in 10 international students. Yet less than

10% of Sub-Saharan African youths are enrolled in post-secondary education (Dennis, 2020).

Education is seen as a way out of poverty for most African youths and the pressure to succeed

often drive most to indulging in risky behaviour as opposed to positive lifestyles. In South

Africa, there are rampant occurrences of drug and alcohol use and unsafe sex among higher

education students (Pelzer, 2011). In Ghana, risky behaviour among young people is a major

public health problem as majority indicated indulgence in sexual activity and use of illicit drugs.

Cult and gang related issues are also rampant in major higher institutions especially public
institutions. These risky behaviours shortchange students' chances of excelling in their

academics and living responsible lifestyles after school (Asiseh, Owusu & Quaicoe, 2017).

In Nigeria, about 26.1% of the population is within 12-24 years (Nigeria Demographic

and Health Survey, 2018). Nineteen per cent of the young people (15–19) had begun

childbearing. Moreover, the incidence and prevalence of unhealthy lifestyles are high among

young people aged 15–24 years. In 2018, 510,000 young people between the ages of 18 and 24

were newly infected with sexually transmitted diseases (Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey

[NDHS], 2018). School students are also at risk of other lifestyle problems such as early

pregnancy, unsafe abortion, drinking problems, physical and sexual violence. They are exposed

to these problems mainly due to their unhealthy behaviours such as early sexual debut, multiple

sexual partners, alcohol problem, drug addiction and unsafe sex. Increased education and

awareness of factors that promote unhealthy lifestyles are essential for the minimalization of risk

behaviours among students (United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

[UNICEF], 2019). According to Adamson (2015), there has been a growing trend in the use of

psychoactive substances among young people. Risky behaviours in adolescents among students

have been discovered to be leading causes of poor academic performance and delinquency (Isifi,

2017). Furthermore, Students have an annual prevalence rate for marijuana use equal to their

non school -age peers, and a lower rate of daily marijuana use (Okorodudu, 2010).

According to Hu, Liu and Willitt (2011), university students represent a major segment of

the young adult population. They typically enter a dynamic transitional period of new

independence from their parents that is characterized by rapid, interrelated changes in body,

mind, and social relationships and experience a new environment that generally involves

increased workload and stress, altered patterns of life, which are significant contributors to
unhealthy lifestyles. Also, Pullman, Masters and Zalot (2010) revealed that researchers found

that majority of university students are minimally engaged in health-promoting behaviours and

exhibit behavioural health risks, such as tobacco use, alcohol and substance abuse, and improper

diet and physical activities. Some diseases such as sexually transmitted diseases, pre-

hypertension, psychological symptoms, mental illness, obesity and being overweight are also on

the rise among college students. These behaviour patterns and their consequences typically

persist into adulthood, jeopardising individuals’ health status in later life (Lee & Yoke, 2015).

Risky behaviors that results from bad lifestyles can be divided into four different groups

under the headings of traffic, sexuality, substance use, and sports. Committing crimes, smoking

cigarettes, alcohol or substance consumption, energy drink consumption and self-harming

behavior, attempting suicide, risky driving (driving under the influence of alcohol, without a

safety belt, speeding, driving without a license), early sexual experiences, unprotected gender,

running away from home or school, dropping out of school, disinterest in classes, unhealthy

eating patterns, dieting and a physically inactive life can be considered as risky behaviors

(Hidayah, & Hanafiah, 2013). Self-harming behaviors, which are generally seen throughout the

world between the ages of 14-19, and in Nigeria between the ages of 16-20, are described as

destructive behaviors without the intention of ending one’s life, seeking to escape negative

feelings or deal with emotional stress factors (Isife, 2017). Studies conducted on both self-

harming behavior and suicide show that youths in particular are in a high-risk group (Farley, &

Kim-Spoon, 2014).

Several factors have been put forward by different scholars that link poor academic

performance to unhealthy lifestyles among adolescents and students .Young people living in

noisy environment can exhibit poor academic performance. Too much television-viewing among
students has been linked with inadequate study patterns (Mendezabal, 2013). Inappropriate

television-viewing among students has been linked to erratic sleep/wake schedules and poor

sleep quality, violent or aggressive behavior, substance use, sexual activity resulting in decreased

school performance or even school drop-out (Nair, Paul & Padmamohan, 2013). There is

irrefutable evidence that environmental-lead exposure can lead to mild intellectual impairment,

hyperactivity, shortened concentration span, hearing impairment, violent/aggressive behavior

which affects students (Aremu & Sokan, 2013). The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)

administered by the Oklahoma State Department of Health can help Oklahoma leaders identify

behavioral risk factors among youth and set health priorities for the state. Data from the 2015

YRBS indicate that Oklahoma students who received higher grades were significantly less likely

to engage in risk behaviors than their classmates with lower grade. Risk behaviors, such as the

use of tobacco products and consumption of alcohol, have been linked to poor grades (Andrade,

2014).

In addition to the modification of their behaviour due to the transition phase of their life,

collegel students also change their behaviour on account of many other factors that are external.

Dupper (2010) maintain that students misbehave because there are mismatches between their

needs and the socio-environmental factors that are within their immediate environment. Student

misbehaviour is not only the naughty behaviour of the student but also the behaviour that

disturbs the effective teaching and learning process (Ghazi, Gulap, Muhammad & Khan, 2013)

and that interrupts the saner and safer school environment (Schleicher, 2015).

Negative and unhealthy lifestyle is a source of worry for all school stakeholders. It is a

multifaceted and complex school problem that is manifested in various forms (Gutuza &

Mapolisa, 2015). There have been interventions to protect students right from adolescence in
order for them to have smooth transition into adulthood, many countries have passed on various

legislations to protect the rights of the child as each nation has such a human rights obligation

(Save the Children, 2017). Violation of human rights distorts academic performance and prevent

the effective and smooth process of personality development (Manzoor, 2017). Also, corporal

punishment is found to be associated with lower IQs, smaller vocabularies, poor cognitive

development (Portela & Pells, 2015). This has led to the banning of corporal punishment in

schools. However, according to Save the Children (2017), poor student discipline as a result of

the failure to inflict corporal punishment has not been proven to be the case, yet educators and

even parents believe that corporal punishment is effective in teaching a lesson as it is a behaviour

modification strategy (Mugabe & Maposa, 2013). In higher institutions, there are numerous

problems and difficulties that students experience. Some may even get involved into violent and

criminal acts, drug abuse, HIV, other sexually transmitted infections, teenage pregnancies,

induced abortions and unemployment (Andrade, 2014). These factors have a direct impact upon

not only their academic performance, but also their lives. These may hamper their psychological

approach and they may even experience problems of depression, trauma or stress to a major

extent (Andrade, 2014). The majority of students in tertiary institutions are single, young adults

who easily fall prey to exuberance coupled with the liberal nature of campus life that predisposes

them to high risky lifestyles. Concerns regarding the implications of this behaviour have led to

increasing interventions particularly for in-school adolescents (Dupper, 2010). This is where

social work is needed to help students in universities identity positive lifestyles that will lead to

positive personal growth and development.

Several initiatives to address the rising risky behaviours and poor lifestyles among

adolescents and students have been undertaken by Nigeria government. According to Nwhator
(2013),Nigeria is a member state of the WHO and signatory to the resolutions and conventions

adopted at the World Health Assembly (WHA) and other meetings to reduce the harmful use of

tobacco and other substances especially among younger population such as the Framework

Convention on Tobacco Use Control; WHO African Region Ministerial Consultation on non-

communicable diseasss (NCDs): and the United Nations General Assembly September in 2011.

It is therefore expected that recommendations from these global commitments would be

incorporated in the policy making processes for tobacco control in Nigeria. Despite the

government’s concern and heightened campaigns against the vice among students, there exists a

parallel accelerated rate of students who are illicit drug users, truants, thieves and prostitutes.

Although, students are expected to be aware of the effects of these endangering behaviors and

commit themselves to their studies, the habit still exist default of their prior expected awareness

of its consequences (Isifi, 2017)).

According to International Federation of Social Workers [IFSW], 2014), Social work is a

practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change, development,

empowerment and liberation of people through engaging individuals and structures to address

life challenges and enhance wwellbeing The adolescents and youths in every society is of great

importance and concern to that society because they are looked upon as the leaders of tomorrow.

Dearth of positive lifestyles has caused global concerns and Nigerian youths especially students

in tertiary institution have been blamed for the high rate of vices such as use of drugs and

alcohol, associating with gangs, bullying, unsafe sex practices and cybercrimes. One of the

functions of social work is to carrying out public education and enlightenment (Dhavaleshwar,

2017). This is where social work comes to change the attitude and behavior of students towards

positive lifestyle. Sheafor (2011) averred that education is one of the roles of social work
profession because knowledge is power and a central force in behavioral oriented practice such

as lifestyles and behaviours. Therefore, through their educational function, social workers

provide clients with the needed education and orientation which facilitates decision-making to

start imbibing positive and healthy lifestyles to live a fully functioning life. Through proper

sensitization, educational campaigns in higher institutions by social workers, students’

perception towards certain lifestyles can be changed. Social workers investigate the factors that

promote negative lifestyles and bad behaviours and also work with relevant bodies in addressing

those factors and challenges (Sheafor, 2011).

1.2 Statement of the problem

According to WHO (2011), lifestyle behaviours including tobacco use, poor diet,

physical inactivity and excessive alcohol consumption are identified as health-risk behaviours.

Alcohol and other drug use and risky lifestyles remain high among young people and college

students across the globe. It’s estimated that more than a quarter of 15 to 19 year-olds drink

alcohol, 45% of these engage in heavy episodic or binge drinking. 9 out of 10 smokers started by

the age of 18. Behaviors that pose risks for an individual’s health and that also represent

important threats for public health, such as drug use, smoking, alcohol, unhealthy eating causing

obesity, and unsafe sex, are highly prevalent in low income countries, even though they are

traditionally associated with richer countries (Joel, 2019).

Accordinging to Biyi and Ogwumike (2016), youths are involved in anti-social behaviour

when they are together as groups. Age and peer group influence may therefore be necessary

factors influencing these anti-social behaviours. Furthermore, other studies show that poverty

could be a contributor to the anti-social behaviour observed among the university students
(Rosario, & Corliss, 2014). For example, while poverty and the search for means of survival

could lead a student to anti-social behaviours such as violence and prostitution, too many

resources could be the main reason why others maintain lavish lifestyle, engage in substance

abuse or alcoholism or get led to friends who introduce them to cultism.

In Nigeria, although the rate of daily cigarette use among school students is lower than

among the general population (13% versus 26%), nearly one in four students smoke at least one

cigarette per month, which suggests that they are experimenting with the substance and are at

risk of addiction (Jabatan, 2016). Daily smoking rates are estimated at 15% for men and 9% for

women. The concurrent use of tobacco and oral contraceptives among many women in this age

group places them at higher risk of developing heart disease and cancer, in addition to the

negative health consequences of tobacco consumption (Jabatan, 2016). An assessment of the

prevalence and risk factors for HIV among students suggests that, although the overall

prevalence of infection is low and confined to high-risk groups, the occurrence of behaviours

that facilitate sexual transmission of HIV is high (Aina, 2011). Although students appear to be

knowledgeable about HIV infection, they have not adequately adopted preventive behaviours.

One survey of university students found that only 25% of men and 16% of women always used a

condom during sexual intercourse (Jabatan, 2016). Sexual immorality could predispose the

university students to health habits that put them at greater risk for the development of many

chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer which disrupts their learning in school

(Aina, 2011).

According to Kumari and Kumar (2017), students who are prone to unhealthy lifestyles

are more likely to experience depression, suffer poor academic performances, trauma and live

unproductive lives. Certain behaviours such as drinking problem and drug use are leading causes
of mental problems among students. Unhealthy sexual behaviours cause unwanted pregnances

and complicated abortions among students. The consequences of certain bad lifestyles often

result to grave consequences among young people.

Though some studies have been carried out to determine the factors influencing

unhealthy lifestyles and risky behaviours among students, for example, Asiseh, Owusu &

Quaicoe, O (2017) examined analysis of family dynamics on high school adolescent risky

behaviors in Ghana. Another study was carried out by Ahmed (2011) on lifystle and risk

behaviours among college students in Erbil city, Iraq and Agwu, Croiz and Nwachukwu (2018)

did a study on lifestyle behaviours among university students in Nigeria. there is little or no

studies done to find out factors that promote positive lifestyles among Nigerian university

students, hence the research topic: factors that promote positive lifestyle among undergraduate

students in University of Nigeria, Enugu State.

1.3 Research question

The following research questions are generated to guide the study;

1. What is the level of knowledge of positive lifestyles among undergraduates in

University of Nigeria Nsukka?

2. What are the factors that influence positive lifestyles among undergraduates in UNN?

3. What are the factors contributing to risky behaviour among undergraduates in UNN?

4. What are the effects of unhealthy lifestyles among undergraduates in UNN?

5. What are the measures to be used to improve the knowledge of positive lifestyles

among undergraduates in UNN?

 6. What are the roles of social workers in improving the awareness of positive lifestyles

among undergraduates in UNN?

1.4 Objectives of the study

The general objectives of the study is to find out the factors that influences positive

influences among undergraduates in University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu State and for this, the

study has the following specific objectives:

1. To find out the level of knowledge of positive lifestyles among undergraduates in

University of Nigeria Nsukka.

2. To find out the factors that promotes positive lifestyles among undergraduates in UNN.

3. To determine the factors contributing to risky behaviour among undergraduates in

UNN.

4. To ascertain the effects of unhealthy lifestyles among undergraduates in UNN.

5. To find out the measures to be used improve the knowledge of positive lifestyles

among undergraduates in UNN.

6. To find out the role of Social workers in improving the awareness of positive lifestyles

among undergraduates in UNN.

1.5 Significance of the study

The purpose of all human research is to provide individuals with help that will further the

understanding of the problems and questions in that particular field of study. The work or study

is of two significances which is theoretical and practical significance.

 Theoretically, this study will be a great help to researchers who are carrying out a

research on lifestyles among university students. In other words, it will improve the existing

literature regarding awareness of positive lifestyles and consequences of risky behaviours among

students.. Hence, the work will contribute to the existing body of literature in this area of study

by the findings of the factors that affect positive lifestyles and also especially, behaviours and

habits that constitutes as unhealthy and bad lifestyles. The instrument used, the methodology and

findings can inspire greater exploits for future researchers on the topic under study.

On the practical aspect, the findings from this study will be of immense benefits to

university management and society at large including the government in the area of formulating

strong policies to curtail high prevalence of risky behaviours among students. Particularly, the

study will be instrumental to higher institutions as it will enable them be aware of risky lifestyles

prevalent in their institutions and ways to minimizing them so students can excel both in

academics and character. Finally, the study will be vital to Social Work Profession as it will

guide them in identification and treatment of behaviours and lifestyles that pose risks to students.

1.6 Operationalization of the concept

The following concepts will be defined to suit the context of this study in which they have been

used. They include;

Age. This refers to undergraduate students between the age of 16 years and above.

Behaviour: This refers to the character, choices and decisions people make on daily basis.

Academic performance: This refers to meeting with established level of academic score in

school.

Higher level of study: This refers to undergraduates that are in 300 levels and above.
Factors: This refers to things that influence undergraduates to indulge in certain lifestyles or

behaviours.

Lifestyle: This refers to behaviours adopted by undergraduate students.

Lower level of study: This refers to undergraduates that are in 100 and 200 levels of study.

Negative lifestyle: This refers to behaviours and habits that poses a threat to the physical, mental

and academic growth of undergraduates.

Older undergraduate: This refers to undergraduates aged 26 years and above

Poor academic performance: This means having a Grade Point Average (CGPA) that can be

classified as bad or very bad and generally not living up to expectations as an undergraduate

student.

Positive lifestyle: This refers to behaviors and habits that improve the physical, mental and

academic growth of undergraduate students.

Risky behaviour: Risky behaviour in this study refers to behaviours that endangers the health

and safety of students which impede their academic performance

Sex: Sex in this study refers to male and female adolescents

Students: Students here refer to a person who enrols in a school or other institutions of learning

who attends classes in a course to attain the appropriate level of mastery of a subject.

Undergraduates: Undergraduates refers to udents of higher level education or tertiary

institutions including universities, polytechnics, colleges of education who are yet to obtain a

degree certificate in their various disciplines or courses of study.

Younger undergraduates: This refers to undergraduate students aged 25 years and below.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1Empirical review of literature

This chapter presents the review of related literature to the study under the following sub-

headings: assessment of lifestyles among students, factors influencing lifestyle habits in students

and influences and effects of lifestyle habits on academic performance.

2.1.1 Assessment of lifestyles among students

 Ahmed (2011) conducted a study on lifestyle and risk behaviours among college students

in Erbil city, Irag. The study adopted a cross sectional study and made use of simple random

sampling method to select 1000 respondents from eight colleges in Erbil province. Questionnaire

was the primary instrument of data collection. Findings from the study revealed that one third of

the participants reported practicing negative health habits which resulted to high pre-

hypertension and obesity among the students. Also, the study reprinted that smoking and alcohol

consumption were more prevalent especially among male students.

Ufuoma, Igbinedion and Achi (2020) carried out a study on assessment of risky

behaviours among undergraduate students of a Tertiary institution in Delta State, South South

Nigeria. The study adopted systematic sampling technique and questionnaire was administered to

400 respondents who participated in the study. The findings from the study showed risky

lifestyle habits among undergraduate students included smoking, alcohol usage, use of hard

drugs and unprotected sexual intercourse. Poor habits that reduce sleep quality could negatively

affect students’ academic performance.

Agambire, Ansong and Adusei (2019) studied risky behaviours among adolescents in a

rural community. The study was conducted at Kwabre East District, Ashanti Region of Ghana. It

adopted cross-sectional design. It was conducted in three secondary schools within the Kwabre

East District of with 356 adolescents randomly selected as participants and questionnaire

administered for data collection. The study revealed that majority indicated that sexual activity is

the most perceived risky behaviour among adolescents. Other negative lifestyles identified

include truancy, substance use, addiction to television and smartphones.

2.1.2 Factors influencing lifestyle habits among students

 Chanakira, Goyder and Freeman (2014) did a study on factors perceived to influence

risky sexual behaviours among university students in the United Kingdom. The study was a

qualitative study and students at a university in a northern city of England were invited to

participate in qualitative telephone interviews which was primary instrument of data collection.

the results of the findings indicated that cultural differences largely influence engagement in

sexual activity. Students who are religious inclined are less likely to engage in sexual activity

and shift due to academic priorities and a tendency to adhere to moral codes. Age was found to

have significant relationship with sexual activity as younger students were more likely to engage

in risky sexual activity than older students.

Agwu, Croiz and Nwachukwu (2018) carried out a study on lifestyle behaviours among

university students in Nigeria by gender and ethnicity. The study was cross sectional and 2500

students were randomly recruited from six universities and questionnaire was the primary source

of data collection. The study provided evidence that smoking is not a public health issue among

students in Nigeria as only few percentage of students engage in that behaviour. Factors such as

income, strong religious attachments and cultural orientations attribute to low smoking

prevalence. Ethnicity shows that Hausa ethnic group reported more in both the seldom and

regular drug use categories than other ethnic groups. The Igbo ethnic group had the lowest drug

use in both the seldom and the regular drugs use categories. Students from Hausa ethnic group

reported high stress and depression which explained the high drug use.

Deasy, Coughlan, Pironom, Jourdan and Mcnamara (2014) studied psychological distress

and lifestyle of students in Ireland. Cross-sectional study design was employed to examine

lifestyle behaviours and their relationship to psychological distress and ways of coping among

students and total sample of 1577 undergraduate nursing/midwifery and teacher education
students were systematically sampled and administered questionnaires. The study established a

significant relationship between distress and risky lifestyles. Majority who reported tobacco use,

alcohol use, physical inactivity and unhealthy balances indicated high psychological distress.

Also, age and gender were shown to influence diet and physical activity. Also students who

reside in student areas were more likely to smoke and use alcohol.

2.1.3 Influences and effects of lifestyle habits on academic performance.

Bakouei, Omidvar and Bakouei (2019) explored whether healthy lifestyle behaviors are

positively associated with the academic achievement of the university students. The study was

cross-sectional research conducted on 262 university students studying in the selected faculties

of Babol University of Medical Sciences in Iran using multi stage sampling technique.

Questionnaire was the primary source of data collection. The findings revealed that students who

experience spiritual growth and physical activity have improved academic achievement. On the

other hand, low academic achievement was traced to poor diet, physical inactivity and distress.

Stea and Torstveit (2014) did a study on association of lifestyle habits and academic

achievements in Norwegian students. It was a cross-sectional study and 2,432 Norwegian

adolescents were randomly selected and administered with questionnaires. Findings from the

study revealed that regular meal pattern, an intake of healthy food items and being physically

active were all associated with increased odds of high academic achievement, whereas the intake

of unhealthy food and beverages, smoking cigarettes, alcohol use and snuffing were associated

with decreased odds of high academic achievement in Norwegian students.

In Iran, Sohrabivafa, Ali & Khazaei (2017) conducted a study on prevalence of risky

behaviors and related factors among students of Dezful. The study was a descriptive-analytical
cross sectional study. Simple random sampling approach was used to select 300 students and

questionnaire was used to collect data. Findings from the study found significant relationship

between risky behaviours and poor academic performance. Students who are at risk of alcohol

use, sexual activity and drug use are likely to suffer from depression and other health and social

problems including unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.

2.2. Theoretical review of Literature

2.2.1 Understanding lifestyle

Being healthy is an important aspect in life satisfaction and lifestyles play key roles in

individual's health. The factors that effect the health status of an individual are named as the

environmental factors, economical factors, socio-cultural factors, genetic factors, access to health

services and life style. Since it can be controlled by the individual, lifestyle is a topic with great

importance. According to Debnath (2021), lifestyle is simply put as someone’s way of living.

Lifestyle can be explained as individuals, families or societies way of living which they display

on day to day basis to survive in their physical, psychological, social, and economic

environments. The term 'lifestyle' was introduced in the 1950s as meaning of that of “style in

art”.

In recent decades, lifestyle as an important factor of health is more interested by

researchers. According to WHO, 60% of related factors to individual health and quality of life

are correlated to lifestyle (Ziglio, Currie & Rasmussen, 2014). Globally, Millions of people

follow an unhealthy lifestyle resulting in development of illness, disability and even death.

Problems like metabolic diseases, joint and skeletal problems, cardio-vascular diseases,

hypertension, overweight, violence and so on, can be caused by an unhealthy lifestyle (UNFPA,
2014). The relationship of lifestyle and health are very significant and one that shouldn't be

neglected.

Today, wide changes have occurred in life of all people. Malnutrition, unhealthy diet,

smoking, alcohol consuming, drug abuse, stress and so on, are the manifestation of unhealthy life

style that they are used as dominant form of lifestyle (Mozaffarian, Rimm, Willey, & Hu 2011).

Quality of lifestyles of people are at ever increasing risk due to changes in our world. For

instance, the emergence of new technologies such as the internet and virtual communication

networks have become major challenges that threaten the physical and mental health of people.

The effects have manifested in the overdue and addiction to technology such as smartphones,

television and internet (Thomee, Harenstam & Hagberg, 2011). The changes in lifestyles have

heightened the call for more focus to be geared towards cultivating and strengthening healthy

and positive lifestyles.

According to Ergen (2016), healthy lifestyle is defined as the individual's control over his

or her behaviors which can affect his/her health status and while organizing the daily activities,

choosing the behaviors that are appropriate to his/her health status. Healthy lifestyle behaviors

are healthy nutrition, stress management, regular exercise, spiritual wellbeing, high quality

interpersonal relations and taking the health responsibility. So, understanding the healthy

lifestyle level and life satisfaction of individuals is important for health and education

institutions, companies and governments to define their strategies accordingly (Ergen, 2016).

2. 2.2 University students and lifestyle problems

In recent times, university students have become a target population for a number of

researches that examine mental and psychosocial health problems. The period of higher
education often coincide with the transition from adolescence to adulthood and are a vulnerable

period when young people make lifestyle decisions that once established persist into later

adulthood, affecting lifelong health (Bell & Lee, 2016). Studies showed that university students

are at risk of poor academic achievement, impaired social functioning, suicide, and substance

abuse (Hickie, 2011). The need to address university students’ mental, psychosocial and physical

health aspects are increasing. Levine and Cureton (2011) stated that university students

nowadays are coming to university “overwhelmed and damaged more than those of previous

years. In the United States, Woolfson (2013) reported that 40% of the surveyed university

students pointed out depression as their major concern. It is also found that the perception of

general health and social functioning among university student was associated with poor mental

health (Hickie, 2011). The changes in social, economic, family, and demographic factors

increased the challenges and stressors that university students are exposed to everyday. As a

result, the student’s need for counselors’ help is increasing because students are increasingly

exposed to sociocultural factors such as divorce, family dysfunction, violence, exposure to drugs,

and poor attachments (Mapfumo, Chitsiko & Chireshell, 2012).

2.2.3 Unhealthy lifestyles and risk behaviours among adolescents.

The transition from childhood to adulthood poses as a difficult challenge for students as

they often struggle to make lifestyle choices and establish patterns of behaviour that affect both

their current and future health (Leversen, Danielsen, Birkeland, & Samdal, 2012). It is the period

they are influenced by risk factors in their environment. Risk factors are characteristics within an

individual or conditions in a family, school or community that increase the likelihood that

someone will engage in unhealthy behaviour such as the use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs,

violence, suicide, or early sexual activity whiles protective factor are characteristics within an
individual or conditions in a family, school or community that help someone to cope successfully

with life challenges. Protective factors are instrumental in healthy development as they build

resiliency, skills and connections (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).

A number of risky behaviour begins in adolescence that affects health both at that time

and in later years (Nebbitt, Lombe, Sanders-Phillips, & Stokes, 2010). Adolescent period is

marked by experimentation with risky behaviour such as tobacco, alcohol and drug use; dietary

behaviour and risky sexual behaviour (Center of Disease Control [CDC], 2012). According to

Terzian, Andrews, and Moore (2011), risky behaviour among adolescents especially in

university students, is the leading cause of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unintended

pregnancies, cognitive damage, injuries and suicide attempts Risky sexual behaviour and

substance use are a major health concerns for youth. Risky sexual behaviour may include early

initiation of sexual intercourse, high risk partners or sex with a partner who has one or more

partners at a time (Ma, Ono-Kihara & Cong, 2011). Taylor-Seehafer and Raw (2014) disclosed

that inconsistent use of condoms and unprotected sexual intercourse are also risky sexual

behaviours, owing to their association with transmitted diseases, unplanned pregnancies and risk

reputation. Also, Thomas (2015) further reported adolescents that were heavy drinkers were four

times more likely to be sexually active at an earlier age and had 50% more sexual partners when

compared to regular drinkers. These behaviours can lead to long-term consequences such as life-

time sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or pregnancy as a teen.

Alcohol consumption among higher education students is a matter of public health

concern, particularly hazardous drinking, cigarette smoking, cannabis use, unhealthy diet/eating

patterns and low levels of physical activity are also problematical among this population group

(Terzian et al, 2011). Health adverse behaviours are interwoven, for example alcohol
consumption adversely influences other lifestyle behaviours including eating habits, smoking

and physical activity. Thus, risk behaviours often aggregate in clusters with synergistic effects on

health (Ergen, 2016).

2.2.4 Psychosocial factors that influence unhealthy lifestyles

Factors that induce students of higher education especially adolescents to engage in risky

behaviours and unhealthy lifestyles cut across social and psychological aspects. Pryjmachuk and

Richards (2013) indicated that students are inclined to engage in risky behaviours like drug and

alcohol use due to stressors which include financial uncertainty, increased pressure from home to

do well in school, technological overload and peer pressure. Students often engage in risky

behaviour to please peers and for fear of rejection. Some researchers have associated the

behaviour with poverty, suggesting the need for money as a driving force for this behaviour

(Taylor-Seehafer & Rew, 2014).

Distress experienced by higher education students is linked with the adoption of risk

behaviours, including smoking, hazardous drinking, and poor dietary habits. The factors that

contribute to psychological distress include a range of academic and course-related stressors as

well as the transition from home to college and into adulthood. Distress can also be caused by

loss of dear ones and poor academic performance (Pryjmachuk & Richards, 2013).

2.2.5 Role of Social Work profession in promoting positive lifestyles among undergraduate

students

Every member of the community deserves to live a healthy life and to engage in good

behaviours that won’t cause any health risk to them. The development of strong, vibrant and

healthy communities has long been a tenet of the social work profession. As facilitators,
organizers, counselors, and advocates, social workers have an important voice in helping people

in communities overcome the barriers to necessary change. They also provide the energy for

transformation, empowering rural people with the knowledge, resources and capacity to improve

their lives.

According Uzma (2017), one of the most important roles of social worker is to create

awareness about the the benefits of positive lifestyles and risks of risky lifestyles. There are

different techniques of raising awareness at individual, group, community and mass level.

Further, Uzma (2017) further posited that counseling is central to social. Counseling process is

client-centered which means dealing all clients with respect, regardless of their age, ethnic

affiliation and socio-economic group. Social workers maintain confidentiality and do not take it

personal when conducting sessions and dealing any case. Further, to change the attitude of

people, social worker motivates the masses and plays his role as a motivator working in the

different organizations. The focus of social worker is to convince and motivate people to practice

family planning methods so that population may be controlled. Social workers deploy different

techniques to motivate the people according to situation (Bell & Rubin, 2013). Research also

plays a critical role in initiate family planning programs in a country. It is also essential in

identifying and overcoming the social and economic inequalities and health system deficiencies

that obstruct the achievement of the standards of reproductive health for all. Social Work is

committed to providing global leadership in setting the research agenda on the delivery of

reproductive health services and improving access to family planning services (Lieberman &

Davis, 2012)

Social work has a lot to play in improving and disseminating the knowledge of healthy

and positive lifestyles by creating awareness at mezzo and macro levels. Effective social work
service curbs the ignorance of positive lifestyles that promote good health while instituting and

implementing structures that will promote uptake of good habits and behaviours via public

education on risk factors and consequences of engaging in risky behaviours on health and

academics. Other roles include counseling, engaging community stakeholders and school

management in formulating, implementing and reinforcing new behavioural changes such as use

of contraceptives, shunning multiple sexual partners, avoiding unsafe sex practices, saying no

drug use and many more in order to improve overall health. More importantly, social workers

work closely with students already living with HIV/AIDS, unwanted pregnancies and drug

problems by providing psychosocial services for their wellbeing.

2.3 Review of relevant theories

2.3.1 Theory of planned behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985. The theory was

developed from the theory of reasoned action which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together

with Icek Ajzen in 1980. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and

perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors.

The TPB has been used successfully to predict and explain a wide range of health behaviors and

intentions including smoking, drinking, health services utilization, and substance use, among

others. The TPB states that behavioral achievement depends on both motivation (intention) and

ability (behavioral control). It distinguishes between three types of beliefs - behavioral,

normative, and control. The TPB is comprised of six constructs that collectively represent a

person's actual control over the behavior.

 According to Ryan and Carr (2010), the performance of a behaviour is determined by the

individual’s intention to engage in it (influenced by the value the individual places on the behaviour, the

ease with which it can be performed and the views of significant others) and the perception that the

behaviour is within his/her control. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) postulates that the likelihood

of an individual engaging in a health behavior (for example, healthy lifestyle) is correlated with the

strength of his or her intention to engage in the behavior. A behavioral intention represents an

individual's commitment to act and is itself the outcome of a combination of several variables. According

to the TPB, the factors that directly influence intentions to engage in a health behavior include the

person's attitudes toward the behavior, the person's perception of subjective group norms concerning

the behavior, and the extent to which the person perceives him- or herself to have control concerning

the behavior (Kagee & Freemam, 2017).

In relation to this present study, TBT when applied to individuals will result in improved

awareness, positive attitude and high participation in positive and health promoting behaviours

and habits. When students are made aware of the risk of unhealthy lifestyles on their wellbeing,

environment and academics, they will be motivated to change which will be informed by

decision and efforts (ability) to start engaging in positive lifestyles such as physical exercise,

good hygiene, abstinence from drug and alcohol use, etc.

2.3.2 Health belief model

One of the first theories of health behavior, the health belief model was developed in the

1950s by social psychologists Irwin M. Rosenstock, Godfrey M. Hochbaum, S. Stephen Kegeles,

and Howard Leventhal at the U.S. Public Health Service in the 1950s. The health belief model

(HBM) is a psychological health behavior change model developed to explain and predict health-

related behaviors, particularly in regard to the uptake of health sservices The HBM derives from
psychological and behavioral theory with the foundation that the two components of health-

related behavior are 1) the desire to avoid illness, or conversely get well if already ill; and, 2) the

belief that a specific health action will prevent, or cure, illness. Ultimately, an individual's course

of action often depends on the person's perceptions of the benefits and barriers related to health

behavior.

The model is based on the theory that a person's willingness to change their health behaviors is

primarily due to their health perceptions. According to this model, your individual beliefs about health

and health conditions play a role in determining your health-related behaviors. According to HBM,

people change their behavior when they understand that the disease is serious; otherwise they might

not turn to healthy behaviors. The structures of the HBM model include perceived severity, perceived

susceptibility, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, modifying variables, cues to action, and self-

efficacy (Elizabeth, 2020).

.When applied to this present study, the theory will help people to understand more about

lifestyles, factors that influence lifestyles especially risky behaviours, treatment and preventive

measures. This will assist people in making proper decisions to improve their health by adopting

lifestyles that won't pose health problems to them. According to HBM, people change their behavior

when they understand that the disease is serious; otherwise they might not turn to healthy behaviors.

[18] The structures of the HBM model include perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, perceived

benefits, perceived barriers, modifying variables, cues to action, and self-efficacy.

2.3.3 The Trans theoretical model

The theory was propounded by James Prochaster in 1977. It is based on analysis and use

of different theories of psychotherapy. The Trans theoretical model of behaviour change is an

integrative theory of therapy that assesses an individual's readiness to act on a new healthier

behaviour and provides strategies or processes of change to guide the individual. The model is

composed of constructs such as stages of change, processes of change, levels of change, self-

efficacy and decisional balance. The Trans theoretical model is also know by the abbreviation

TTM and sometimes by the term stages of change although this latter term is a synecdoche since

the stages of change are only one part of the model with processes of change, level of change,

etc. This constructs refers to the temporary dimension of behavioural change. In the trans

theoretical model change is a "process involving progress through a series of stages.

The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) is a successful framework for guiding behavior change

programs for several health behaviors (Han, Pattee & Kohl, 2017). In a study carried out by Kien, Yee,

Wan Youngho and Gary (2018) on structural relationship of the transtheoretical model (TTM) and the

amount of physical activity (PA) among undergraduate students in health and medicine at Universiti

Sains Malaysia, the findings support that individuals’ stages of change affect their self-efficacy level, or

the ability to make positive and negative decisions and perform behavior accordingly. The study

confirms that making correct decisions and taking action accordingly can increase PA levels.

This theory when applied to the present study will help in modifying behaviour that will

see to cultivation of positive attitudes towards building healthy lifestyles and also going for

counseling. Individuals will be made known the problem or factors that are hindering them from

undertaking good behaviours and habit. In turn, this knowledge will enable them take actions and

begin living health lifestyle such as keeping to one partner, use of condoms, abstinence and good

diets.
2.4 Theoretical orientation

The Health belief model is best suited for this study. HBM will be instrumental in

promoting awareness of risky behaviors and making case for positive lifestyles. Less than 40%

of young people are in Tertiary institutions in. Nigeria and there are growing concerns due to

drug use and unsafe sexual activity and It is further reinforced by socio-cultural factors such as

traditions, religion, and stigma, and finance, inaccessible health clinics.

The goal of HBM is to help people making good decisions that will improve their health.

This is achievable when people are aware of the risk factors and consequences of certain bad

lifestyle. Part of the goal of HBM includes promoting factors that will lead to uptake of health

seeking behaviours including going for counseling. Positive attitude towards healthy and positive

lifestyles will also improve when people are helped to deal with the constraining factors affecting

their lives.

2.5 Study Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested in this research.

1. Female students are more likely to engage in positive lifestyle than male students

2. Newer level students are more likely to have positive lifestyle than older level students

3. Younger undergraduates are more likely to engage in risky lifestyles than older students

4. Students who live off campus are more like to indulge in risky behaviours than students

who live on campus

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design

The study adopted the cross-sectional survey design. This is because the design

guarantees the observation of a representative of a population at one point in time, from which

appropriate inferences and generalizations are made (Barbie, 2010). It is also less costly and

saves time, which will be vital to the researcher in the execution of the research within a short

period of time, and with limited resources. In this regard, the research design will facilitate the

researcher’s attempt to find out the positive lifestyles as well as the influence of risky behaviour

and unhealthy lifestyle on academic performance of undergraduate students in University of

Nigeria, Nsukka.

3.2 Study area

The study will be carried out in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka Campus in Enugu

State. The main campus is located in Nsukka. It is Nigeria’s first indigenous and autonomous

university, founded by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe in 1955 and started formal operation in 1960
(Onuoha, 2016). The university consists of 10 faculties and 90 academic departments. It offers

82 postgraduate programmes and 211 undergraduate programmes. The faculties include

Agriculture, Arts, Biological Sciences, Education, Engineering, Pharmaceutical sciences,

Physical sciences, Social sciences, Vocational/Technical Education and Veterinary medicine.

Nsukka campus has 871 hectres (2150 acres) of hilly savannah in the town of Nsukka, about

80km north of Enugu, and has additionally 209 hectares of arable land for an experimental

agricultural farm, and 207 hectares for staff-housing development. Nsukka has a tropical climatic

condition with average temperature of 24.9 and average annual rainfall of 1579mm. University

of Nigeria, Nsukka shares a common boundary with Obukpa, orba,, and Nsukka. It is made up of

36000 students (Academic Planning Unit, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 2019).

There are different categories of students found in Nsukka campus including diploma students,

undergraduate and postgraduate students (Ogunsola, 2014). However, the focus of this study is

the undergraduate students.

3.3 Study population

The population of undergraduate students of University of Nigeria, Nsukka Campus is

25,657 regular and registered students (Academic Planning Unit, UNN, 2019). For this study,

students that were admitted into undergraduate programmes will be used as respondents.

The reason for choosing University of Nigeria, Nsukka campus for the study is because

university of Nigeria, Nsukka is largely dominated by students, and they need to understand the

Environmental influence on Academic performance of undergraduate students and how to be

able to deal with this, also as a result of the need to provide formal and informal knowledge on

positive lifestyle, factors that affect engagement of positive lifestyles and effects on a academic

performance of undergraduate students. Also the study is geared towards examining the opinions
and feelings of the student population on positive lifestyles and the influence on academic

performance of undergraduate students of university of Nigeria, Nsukka. The target population

will be both male and female undergraduate students of the university.

3.4 Sample Size

The sample size of the study will be statistically determined using Taro Yamane (1967)

formula for sample size derivation. A total of 205 respondents will be used for this study. 205

students will serve as respondents for the quantitative aspect of the study.

N
n
1  N (e) 2

n= Sample Size

N = Population Size

e= Error margin estimated at 7% (0.07)

1 = Constant

25,657
n
1  25,657(0.07) 2

25,657
n
1  25,657(0.0049) 2

25,657
n
1  125.7

25,657
n
126.7

25,657
n
127

Sample Size = 202

3.5 Sampling procedure

The multi-stage, random and availability sampling techniques will be used in the study.
 In the first stage, the simple random sampling will be used to select five out of the ten

faculties in University of Nigeria, Nsukka Campus. Each of the ten faculties will be represented

in a piece of paper, folded and mixed up very well, then, four pieces of paper will be drawn at

random, without replacement. Reason for selecting five faculties is because the five faculties will

be enough to represent the population of the study. Also five faculties were selected in order to

give a fair proportion of the entire students of university of Nigeria to represent.

In the second stage, the simple random sampling technique will also be used to select

four departments each from the five faculties already selected in stage one. All the departments

in each of the selected faculties will be written each on a piece of paper. The researcher will then

fold the papers and put them in four bowls representing the four faculties. From each bowl, five

pieces of paper will be randomly drawn without replacement by the researcher. The same

process will be repeated for all the four faculties to arrive at a total of twenty departments.

Thereafter, 20 departments will be used to divide the sample size so as to arrive at the

number of respondents needed from each of the selected faculties. Finally, the availability

sampling will be used to administer questionnaires to respondents at their various departments,

who will be available and willing to participate.

3.6 Instrument for data collection

The instrument for data collection involved the quantitative approach. This involved

questionnaires. This instrument was used because it’s considered more valid than any other

techniques to gather the needed data for the study. The questionnaire will be for 202 respondents.

A uniform set of questionnaire with structured and semi-structured items will be used in eliciting

information from respondents. The questionnaires will be divided into two sections; section "A"

will address demographic issues such as sex, age, level of education and so on. While sections
’B” will contain questions addressing issues bordering on positive lifestyles including factors

that promote it and effects of risky lifestyl/behaviors.

3.7 Administration of research instruments

To make the collection of data easy, two field assistants was recruited and trained by the

researcher to help in the administration of the questionnaires. They were conversant with both

lgbo and English languages. All the questionnaires contained an introductory letter. The purpose

of the study was also contained in the letter; and then administered to all respondents by the

researcher and field assistants. Those respondents might not be able to fill the questionnaires

properly on their own; thus will be helped to do so by the researcher and the field assistants.

3.8 Methods of data analysis

This study would employ quantitative method of data analysis. In doing this, the

quantitative data from the questionnaire will be coded; computer processed and analyzed using

the satisfaction package for social science (SPSS version 20).Percentages were used in assessing

and to determine the proportion of the responses to different issues. Cross tabulation was used to

know the relationship between some key independent variables and dependent variables; Chi-

square (χ2) was be used to test the hypotheses of the study.

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