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The ques tity ce vecasumed id adfeded bY wramy happen’ throw SF the awiveree, We are UMware about sone 7d phe ductor hich are inflyenu' Woe recurrent Such erect tre (ALD 0 andor er, cr Scanned with CamScannerTu ver bo CBE ee eli ae exvers gue to mando erent, we nerd to ctmlee do shakishical analyais J docket Random gers way bee RE uw dake Largs nreadi4y ae Bowe feuds way uel each other aud we Fee a centred valve, Scanned with CamScanner \Errors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis 3.8 RANDOM (RESIDUAL) ERRORS It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation from one reading to another, even after all systematic errors have been accounted for. These errors are due to a multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another and are due surely to chance. The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings throughout the universe. We are aware of and account for some of the factors influencing the measurement, ‘but about the rest we are unaware. The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped and called “Random” or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by these happenings are called Random (or Residual) Errors. Since these errors remain even after the systematic errors have been taken care of, we call these errors as Residual (Random) Errors. Bo CENTRAL VALUE As stated above, the random errors are caused by a large number of small effects, each one being @ variable. These variables may be additive in some cases and subtractive in some, in their effect on the quantity being measured. In many measurements the positive and negative effects are nearly equal, so that the resultant error is small. If we make a large number of measurements and if the plus effects are equal to the ‘minus effects, they would cancel each other and we ‘would obtain the scatter round a Cent falue. Since this condition is jenily met in practice, we are justified in using this concept as a basis of our study of ‘errors which are unknown to us. Thus mathematical laws or “Probability” can be applied for the study of random errors. There is no other way as the random errors are unknown and only statistical study can lead us to the best approximation of the true value of the quantity under study. 3.10 STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA ‘The experimental data is obtained in.two forms of tests ( Multisample test and (i) Single-sample test. ._Multisample test. In this test, repeated’ measure- ‘ment of a given quantity are done using different test conditions such as employing different instruments, | different ways of measurement and by employing different observers. Simply making measurements with the same equipment, procedure, technique and same observer do not provide multisample results. Single-sample test, A single measurement (or ‘succession of measurements) done under identical condi- tions excepting for time is known as single-sample test. 57 In order to get the exact value of the quantity under measurement, tests should be done using as many different procedures, techniques and experi- menters as practicable. It should be borne in mind that the statistical means which help us to arrive at correct results are only valid for multisample tests. 3.10.1 Histogram When a number of multisample observations are taken experimentally there is a scatter of the data about some central value. One method presenting test results in the form of a Histogram. The technique is illustrated in Fig, 33 representing the data given in ‘Table 3.1. This table shows a set of fifty readings of a igh nanan TB poe ei ‘value of length is 100 mm and the data are taken “recorded to thenearest0imm recorded to earest 0.1 mm. Total number of readings = 50. ‘This histogram of Fig. 3.3 represents these data where the ordinate indicates the number of observed readings (frequency or occurrence) of a particular value, A histogram is also called a frequency distxi- ‘bution curve. At the central value of 100 mm is a’ number of readings, 19 in this case, with other values PI symmetrically on either side. Ifsmaller say 100 readings at 0.05 mm intervals are taken, the general form of the histogram will be almost the same but since the steps have smaller increments and we get a smoother curve. 58 ‘ aR WU ae i Fig, 3:3" Histogram. Scanned with CamScannerWith more and more data taken at smaller and smaller increments the histogram would finally change into a smooth curve, as indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 33. ‘The smooth curve is symmetrical with respect to the central value. Many physical cases have been found which give experimental data agreeing fairly well with the smooth symunetrical curve. 3.10.2. Arithmetic Mean The most probable value of measured variable (variate) is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken. The best approximation is made when m. The best approximation is made when the number of readings of the same quantity are . Theoretically, an infinite number of readings ‘would give the best result, although in practice, only a finite number of measurements can be made. ‘The arithmetic mean is given by : FaAtatytytthy Et gig 1" " where, X = arithmetic mean. X/Xqy~/q = Teadings or variates or samples. and = number of readings. 3.10.3 Measure of Dispersion from the Mean Dispersion. The property which denotes the extent to which the values are dispersed about the central value is termed as dispersion: The other names ‘used for dispersion are spread or scatter. Figure 3.4 shows two sets of data. In one case (curve 1) the values vary from x, to x, and in other ‘case (curve 2) the values vary from x, to x,. Though ‘their central value is the same, clearly set. of data represented by curve 1 has a smaller dispersion than that of the data represented by curve 2. It is very important to have a measure of the ispersion from the central value asi is an indication pee eet ‘ ofthe degree ‘consistency (precision) and regularity 4 (Curve 1. Greater precision y (Curve 2. Lower precision “W for curve 1is greater 4 ° . % % 4 Curves showing different ra precision indices, nges and 58 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation ‘A lange dispersion indicates that some factors involved in the measurement process are not under close control and therefore it becomes difficult to estimate the measured quantity with confidence and definiteness. For example, if we compare two sets of data and find that one set has less dispersion that the ‘other set, we can certainly place more reliance on it and can definitely regard it asa superior set as regards random errors, ‘There are certain terms which must be defined as they form the basis of defining the measure of dispersion of data. 3.10.4 Range ‘The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the range which.is the difference between greatest and least values of data. For example, in Fig. 34 the range of curve 1 is (r,—x,) and that of curve 2 is (x, -,). 3.10.5 Deviation Deviation is departure of the observed reading Whe deviation of vending, bed and that oF reading, be dy, etc. G17) and (3.18) Algebraic sum of deviations dtd tds thd, fr, -X) + (aX) + (0 —X) +4 -¥) = (2, $y tay tat.) “MK =0 a8 x tatty tate, nk ‘Therefore the algebraic sum of deviations is zero. 3.10.6 Average Deviation The average deviation is an indication of the ‘Tieagurements, Highly precioe instruments yield a Tow pene eee ‘Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of deviation is the value without respect to its sign. Average deviation may be expressed as : palAltl-alel-dlentl-al _ sha 19) Scanned with CamScannerErrors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis 3.10.7 Standard Deviation (S.D.) Another important term in the analysis of random errors is the standard deviation or the root mean square deviation. The Standard Deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings, Thus standard deviation is : Zed isa SD.=0= sien pe (8.20) In practice, however, the number of observations is finite. When the number of observations is greater than 20, 5.D. is denoted by symbol o while if the number of observations is less than 20, the symbol used is s The Standard Deviation of a finite number of data is given by : eT sa [Sth Gerd (Ee gay n-1 n-1 3.10.8 Variance ‘The variance is the mean square deviation, which is the same as S.D., except that. square root is not extracted. Variance V = (Standard Deviation)” Dad wD act ait ed og (822) sa a But when the number of observations is less than 20 (3.23) a@elt a7 2 Example 3.14 A circuit was tuned for resonance by fight different students, and the values of resonant frequency in kHz were recorded as 532, 548, 543, 535, 546, 531, 543 and 536, Calculate (a) the arithmetic mean, (b) deviations from mean, (c) the average deviation, (d) the standard deviation, and (e) variance. Solution. (2) From Eqn. 3.16, the arithmetic mean of readings is, 3 EE _ 582 + 548 + 543 + 535 + 546 +5914 543 +596 7 ; = 539.25 kHz. () From Eqn. 3.17, the deviations are, Variance V (8.24) d, =x, ~X = 543 -539.25 = +3.75 kHz 59 546 ~599.25 = +6.75 kHz 4d, =x,—X =531-599.25 =-8.25 kHz d, =x,—X = 543 -599.25 = 43,75 kHz dy = x4—X = 536 - 539.25 =-3,25 kHz (6) From Eqn. 3.19, average deviation is : paZld| " 7.2548. +375 + 4.25 +6.75 +8.25 +3.75+3.25 8 =5.75 kHz (Note that for calculation of average deviations, the signs of deviations are disregarded). (@) Since the number of readings is 8 which is less than 20, therefore Eqn. 3.24 is used for calculation of standard deviation. Standard deviation »= a |(-7.25)? + (+8.75) + (+3.75)+ (4.25) +(+6.757 + (8.257 +(+ 3.757 +(-3.257 @-1) = 6.54 kHz. Variance V =s? = 42.77 (kEiz)*. 3.10.9 Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors ‘The Normal or Gaussian law of errors isthe basis for the major part of study of random effects. This type of distribution is most frequently met in practice. The law of probability states the normal occurrence of deviations from average 'value of an infinite number of measurements or observations can be expressed by : 1 wep (hs? yaFewcw) ~ ..025) Wore ‘The reader here is cautioned not to confuse x with magnitude of a quantity. Here x ‘means deviation: where x = magnitude of deviation from mean, y= number of readings at any deviation x, (the probability of occurrence of deviation x). h=a constant called precision index. Equation 3.25 leads to curve of type shown in Fig. 3.5 and this curve showing y plotted against x is called “Normal or Gaussian Probability Curve”. and Scanned with CamScannerErrors"in Meusurements und: TheirStatistieal Analysis “5S instrument to tead tdo low or too high. For example, i the spring (used toxjrodcng cont tinge te Permanent: ‘magnet instrument has become weak, the pene always read high. Errors may be caused friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash. While making precision measurements, we must recognize the possibility of such eftors as it is often possible to eliminate them, or at least reduce them to a great extent by using the following methods : () The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration against standards may be used for the purpose. (i) Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors. (iii) The instrument: may be re-calibrated carefully. 2. Misuse of instruments. There is an old saying that instruments are better than the people who use them. Too often, the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelli- gent way may give erroneous results. Examples which may be cited for this misuse of instrument may be failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance etc. No ‘doubt the above improper practices may not cause ‘a permanent damage to the iristriment but all the same they cause errors. However, there are certain il practices like using the instrument contrary to manufacturer's instructions and specifications which in addition to producing errors cause’ permanent damage to the instruments as a result of overloading and overheating that may ultimately resuilt in failure of the instrument and sometimes the system itself. 4, Loading effects. One of the most common errors committed by beginners, is the improper use of an instrument for measurement work. For example, a ‘well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit (See Example 3.12). The same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give a more dependable , reading (See Example 3.13). These examples illustrate that the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual circuit conditions by the medsurement process. A detailed analysis of loading effects of instruments has been given in Chapter 2 (See Arts. 2.24, 2.25, 2.26 and 2.27 on pages nos. 33 to 39). le 3.12 A vdltmeter having a sensitivity of "1000 CV reads 100 V on its 150 V scale tohen connected ‘cross an unknown resistor in series with asoutti-ammeter. te When the epftammeter reads 5 mA, ilewlate (©) apparent resistance of the unkrotont resistor, ©) actual resistance of the unknown resistor, and (©) error due to the loading effect of voltmeter. Solution. Total circuit resistance age 100-2010. 5x10 Neglecting the resistance of milli-ammeter, the value of unknown resistor R, =20 kA. (®) Resistance of voltmeter Ry =1000%1509 =150k0. As the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown, resistance, we have Ry R+R or unknown resistance , = Pry 20%150 _ 9507 50. Ry -®; 150-20 (0 Percentage error ~~ measured value—true value, 199 ~ true value =20=23.077 , 499 =- 13.33%. 23.077 5 “becmpte 3.13 Repeat example 3.12 f the mill-ammeter yeads 800mA and-the voltmeter reads 40 V on its'150 V scale. Solution. (a) Ry = Fr -__40._ -500 Ty 800x10 Ry =1000x1500 =150§% BRR = 50% 150%10° 150x10°-50 Therefore errors caused by loading. effects of the fers carrberavoide them intelligently, For voltmeter method a vol i value of resistance should be used. In planning any measurement, the loading effect of instruments should be considered and corrections for these effects should be made, if'needed, or more suitable instruments should be used. Preferably those methods should be used which result in negligible or nro loading effects. © Scanned with CamScanner