Received: 21 June 2017 Revised: 12 December 2017 Accepted: 23 February 2018

DOI: 10.1002/casp.2350

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Communal coping and rumination in the aftermath

of Chile earthquake: Multiple mediation analysis of
the relationship between subjective severity and
posttraumatic growth
Felipe E. García1 | Anna Wlodarczyk2

1
Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Santo
Tomás, Concepción, Chile Abstract
2
Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica Communal coping and collective participation were recently
del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
proposed as a potential mechanism that may favour not
Correspondence
Anna Wlodarczyk, Escuela de Psicología,
only individual's capacity to bounce back but also commu-
Universidad Católica del Norte, Casa Central, nity cohesion and social well‐being and posttraumatic
Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile.
Email: anna.wlodarczyk@ucn.cl;
growth in the aftermath of natural disasters. To date, there
annamarwl@gmail.com; anna. is a lack of studies simultaneously assessing the effect of
wlodarczyk@ehu.eus;
communal coping strategies and cognitive strategies on
Funding information
Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Grant/Award the development of posttraumatic growth. Therefore, the
Number: IT‐666‐13UFI 11/04; Eusko aim of this study was to examine the role of communal cop-
Jaurlaritza, Grant/Award Number:
POS_2015_1_0075; Fondo de Fomento al ing strategies and cognitive strategies such as intrusive and
Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico, Grant/ deliberated rumination as potential mediators between sub-
Award Number: N° 11150172; Ministerio de
Ciencia e Innovación, Grant/Award Number: jective severity of the event and posttraumatic growth and
PSI2014‐51923‐P; Basque Government's positive adjustment in the context of natural disaster. The
Post‐doctoral Research Staff Improvement
Training Fellowship, Grant/Award Number: questionnaire was administrated to 225 people affected
POS_2015_1_0075; University of the Basque by the most intense earthquake recorded in Chile in this
Country, Grant/Award Numbers: UFI 11/04
and IT‐666‐13; Spanish Ministry of Science century. The results of multiple mediation analysis showed
and Innovation, Grant/Award Number: that both cognitive strategies, such as deliberative rumina-
PSI2014‐51923‐P; CONICYT/FONDECYT N°
11150172 tion, and communal coping strategies, such as communal
positive reappraisal and participation in spiritual rituals, are
potential mediators between subjective severity and post-
traumatic growth. Overall, the present work offers

This work was supported by CONICYT/FONDECYT N° 1180134 to Felipe E. García. This work was partially supported by the Span-
ish Ministry of Science and Innovation under Grant PSI2014‐51923‐P; the University of the Basque Country under Grants IT‐666‐13
and UFI 11/04; Basque Government's Post‐doctoral Research Staff Improvement Training Fellowship granted to Anna Wlodarczyk
under Grant POS_2015_1_0075.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

J Community Appl Soc Psychol. 2018;1–9. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/casp 1

2 GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK

researchers and professionals interested in this area of

study an interesting approach to analyse individual and col-
lective coping strategies and its interrelation.

KEYWORDS

communal coping, coping, natural disasters, posttraumatic growth,

rumination

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N

Furthermore, stressful or life‐threatening circumstances are not something that the individual has to deal with
alone; other individuals are required to assist and to become intimately involved in the coping process
(Lyons, Mickelson, Sullivan, & Coyne, 1998). The use of social resources may foster stress resistance and produce
favourable coping outcomes. Research on community events suggests that many benefits accrue when people are
able to confront stressful circumstances together (Hobfoll, Schröder, Wells, & Malek, 2002; Lyons et al., 1998).
Therefore, collective trauma entails a diminished emphasis on the self (only I have suffered) and a shift to the others
(we have all suffered; we are all in it together) that results in widespread feeling of community and togetherness
(Schwarz, 2014).
It is estimated that from the 16th century up to the present day, there have been nearly 70 earthquakes
greater than 7 mw on the Richter scale in Chile. In the last 6 years, there has been more than four earthquakes
registered in Chile, last one in December of 2016 (CSN, 2016); therefore, we believe that it is extremely important
to analyse all the possible psychosocial consequences in order to be able to design and implement adequate
strategies and develop individual and collective capacities to reduce risks and vulnerability to disasters. The
earthquake of 8.8 mw on the Richter scale, which took place on February 27, 2010, was one of the most intense
earthquakes recorded in human history (United States Geological Survey, 2010). Its epicentre was about 100 km
from Concepción, but it was felt across the area of more than 630 km, where a total of 525 people were killed
(CSN, 2016). To survive and to cope with such an experience imply a deployment of individual and collective adaptive
recourses. Collective traumatic events of such a magnitude may result in highly intense and negative emotional
response (Vázquez, Pérez‐Sales, & Hervás, 2008). Those experiences may challenge peoples existing ways of making
sense out of their own reactions and their perceptions of others. In consequence, these may shatter their basic
assumptions that the world is fair, safe, and predictable place and that “bad things do not happen to good people”
(Janoff‐Bulman, 2006; Joseph & Linley, 2008). Although it is well known that trauma can evoke fear, uncertainty,
helplessness and hopelessness, and distress (García, 2011; Neria, Nandi, & Galea, 2008), a broad range of empirical
studies have confirmed that individuals do frequently perceive posttraumatic growth (PTG) conceptualized as posi-
tive changes in themselves, in their relation to others and increased spirituality following adversity (García, Reyes,
& Cova, 2014; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996; Triplett, Tedeschi, Cann, Calhoun, & Reeve, 2012). This, indeed, can lead
to the development of cognitive and affective skills that will in turn help people to find ways of coping successfully
with the event (Bonanno, 2004).
Previous studies already confirmed a relationship between positive and negative posttrauma outcomes (Tedeschi
& Calhoun, 1996). Moreover, the subjective perception of severity of the event has a positive and significant relation
not only with psychological distress and posttraumatic stress disorder but also with a rather long‐term PTG (Blix,
Hansen, Birkeland, Nissen, & Heir, 2013; Chen, Zhou, Zeng, & Wu, 2015; García et al., 2014; Nishi, Matsuoka, &
Kim, 2010; Ssenyonga, Owens, & Kani Olema, 2013). Despite the recent interest and constantly growing number
of empirical studies (García et al., 2014; Wlodarczyk, Basabe, Páez, Amutio, et al., 2016; Wlodarczyk, Basabe, Páez,
Reyes, et al., 2016), the mechanisms and processes that underlie these positive relations are still unclear. In this
GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK 3

regard, it is possible that the intrusive and deliberative rumination processes may play an important role (Cann et al.,
2011; García, Cova, Rincón, Vázquez, & Páez, 2016). The cognitive strategies associated with the deliberate or intru-
sive review of the traumatic experience may be relevant as they include an active engagement in finding and meaning
making (Stockton, Hunt, & Stephen, 2011).
Furthermore, literature frequently depict displays of solidarity and increased community cohesion in the after-
math of natural disasters (e.g., Rodriguez, Trainor, & Quarantelli, 2006; Bonanno, Brewin, Kaniasty, & La Greca,
2010; Norris, Stevens, Pfefferbaum, Wyche, & Pfefferbaum, 2008). Moreover, recent study by Muldoon et al.
(2017) highlights the role of community identification and collective efficacy as a potential social cure for traumatic
stress. Considering the aforementioned findings, we argue that communal response and collective participation may
be beneficial; in that, it puts individuals in the presence of others and produces communal synergy that is then trans-
lated into enhanced feelings of belonging and cohesion and has wider, substantial positive effects for both commu-
nities and individuals.
Building on theoretical and empirical bases (Wlodarczyk, Basabe, Páez, Amutio, et al., 2016; Wlodarczyk, Basabe,
Páez, Reyes, et al., 2016), we examined communal coping as potential tool that by reinforcing in‐group interaction
might explain the positive association between perceived severity and PTG among people affected by an earthquake
in Chile in 2010. Moreover, studies on rumination point out the importance of ruminative thoughts in facilitating cog-
nitive processing and working through the experience that in turn fosters PTG (Helgeson, Reynolds, & Tomich, 2006,
Linley & Joseph, 2004). Additionally, recent studies conducted in the context of Chilean earthquake showed the asso-
ciation between rumination and problem‐focused coping and social sharing (García et al., 2016). Nevertheless, until
the date, there are no other studies that simultaneously examine the effect of cognitive and communal coping strat-
egies on the development of PTG.
Therefore, in this study, we pretend to combine individual and collective measures and analyse direct and medi-
ational associations between subjective severity of the event, cognitive strategies such as intrusive and deliberated
rumination and communal coping strategies and PTG. Hence, although we predict that intrusive and deliberated
rumination will play an important mediational role in accounting for individual PTG. We expect that positive commu-
nal coping strategies, especially spiritual rites and positive reappraisal (Wlodarczyk, Basabe, Páez, Reyes, et al., 2016),
should also mediate the association between subjective severity and PTG, such that the effect of subjective severity
on PTG weakens with increased reliance on those positive communal coping strategies.

2 | METHOD

2.1 | Participants
The sample consisted of 225 (56.9% women) adults exposed to and affected by the earthquake in Chile on February
27, 2010. All the participants were residents of Concepción, Bío‐Bío Region, Chile, aged between 18 and 74 years
(M = 37.64; DE = 14.44).

2.2 | Procedure
Data were collected between 24 months after the earthquake. The sample was quasi‐random and intentional. All par-
ticipants were residents of Bio‐Bio region, which was the epicentre of the earthquake in 2010. Participants were
contacted in the affected areas and transitional shelters in villages affected by the tsunami. The questionnaire was
administered to those who agreed to participate in the study after they had signed an informed consent form. Par-
ticipants took an average of 15 min to complete the questionnaire. The research project was approved by Ethics
Committee of the Universidad Santo Tomas.
4 GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK

2.3 | Measures
Subjective Severity of Event Scale (García et al., 2014). The scale was composed of two items (α = .82): “To what
degree do you feel your life was disrupted as a result of [the earthquake and/or tsunami?]” and “To what degree
do you rate [the earthquake and/or tsunami] as a traumatic experience for your life?” Every question was answered
in a Likert scale ranged from 0 = not at all to 4 = a great deal.
Communal Coping Scale (Wlodarczyk, Basabe, Páez, Amutio, et al., 2016). The scale is composed of 19 items,
which describes seven communal coping strategies: communal distraction (α = .62), regulated expression emotional
(α = .70), inhibition and/or group isolation (α = .51), social support (α = .69), positive reappraisal (α = .70), spiritual
rituals (α = .70), and collective gatherings (α = .65). Respondents indicated the extent to which they used each strat-
egy to cope with the effects of the traumatic experience on a standard 4‐point Likert‐type scale ranging from 0 = does
not apply or not used to 3 = used a great deal.
Event Related Rumination Inventory (Cann et al., 2011). We used intrusive (six items, α = .89) and deliberative
(four items, α = .82) rumination subscales corresponding to the two dimensions yelled by García et al. (2014) in
the validated and adapted version of the Event Related Rumination Inventory for the Chilean population. Participants
rated the frequency of repetitive thoughts related to the experience of the earthquake on 4‐point Likert scale, rang-
ing from 0 = not at all to 3 = often.
Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). We administrated the original PTGI 21‐item scale
previously adapted and validated for the Chilean (Garcia, Cova, & Melipillan, 2013). In this study, the PTGI showed
high internal consistency (α = .97; PTG‐RO α = .92, PTG‐SP α = .95; PTG‐SC α = .88). All the items scored on a Likert
scale ranging from 0 = I did not experience this change to 5 = I experienced this change to a very great degree.
Socio‐demographic information. A questionnaire was used to register age, sex, per capita income/household, and
city of residence at the time of the event.

2.4 | Data analysis

All the analyses were conducted using SPSS 21. First, based on the results of a series of factor analyses, we computed
total scores (relative scores were computed for each scale by dividing the sum of the items for each subscale and
scale by the number of items) for each of the variables of the study. Second, we conducted basic descriptive statis-
tics, reliability coefficients and Pearson statistics to determine preliminary associations between variables. Subse-
quently, we performed simple and multiple linear regression analyses. Finally, we performed multiple mediation
analysis. We computed the indirect effects (standardized estimates are presented) and tested their significance based
on bootstrapped (unstandardized) confidence interval of 95%, using 2,000 bootstrap resamples (Hayes, 2008). In this
case, mediation exists if the confidence interval does not contain zero (MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004).
There was no missing data in the analysed dataset.

3 | RESULTS

Descriptive analysis revealed that apart from intrusive rumination, all the instruments present adequate levels of
asymmetry and kurtosis (±2) for parametric statistics as suggested by Bollen and Long (1994). We performed corre-
lation analysis in order to evaluate the strength of the association between the variable (see Table 1). Correlations
revealed positive associations between all the measures and a total score of PTG as well as all of its subscales. More-
over, the measure of deliberative rumination was the one that was most strongly and positively related to the mea-
sure of PTG (r = .65).
The simple regression analysis model with subjective severity was statistically significant and explain 13% of var-
iance of PTG, F(1, 223) = 33.097, p < .001, R2 = 0.13, β = 0.36. Subsequently, we conducted a series of multiple linear
regression analyses to examine our proposed theoretical model involving a total score of PTG and afterward each
GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK 5

TABLE 1 Pearson's r correlations between the study variables (N = 225)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1.SS .44*** .38*** .13* .21** .13* .22*** .15* .29*** .14* .33*** .36*** .32*** .36***
2.IR — .53*** .13 .14* .41*** .16* .07 .33*** .28*** .44*** .45*** .50*** .47***
3.DR — .23*** .34*** .30*** .38*** .34*** .38*** .21*** .64*** .63*** .53*** .65***
4.CCS‐CD — .39*** .14* .42*** .40*** .21*** .22*** .33*** .32*** .25*** .33***
5.CCS‐REE — .04 .51*** .48*** .24*** .03 .35*** .32*** .29*** .34***
6.CCS‐I — .16** .07 .23*** .25*** .30*** .31*** .36*** .33***
7.CCS‐SS — .54*** .23*** .16* .36*** .34*** .26*** .35***
8.CCS‐PR — .19** .11 .40*** .40*** .30*** .41***
9.CCS‐SR — .28*** .46*** .45*** .57*** .49***
10.CCS‐CG — .18** .17** .18** .18**
11.PTG‐RO — .90*** .78*** .96***
12.PTG‐SP — .79*** .98***
13.PTG‐SC — .84***
14.PTG —

Note: CCS‐CD = communal coping strategy–communal distraction; CCS‐CG = collective gatherings; CCS‐I = inhibition;
CCS‐REE = regulated emotional expression; CCS‐PR = positive reappraisal; CCS‐SR = spiritual rituals; CCS‐SS = social
support; DR = deliberative rumination; PTG = posttraumatic growth; PTG‐OR = other relations; PTG‐SC = spiritual change;
PTG‐SP = self‐perception; SS = subjective severity.

subscale of PTG as a dependent variable and the average rating of all the other variables included in the study as
independent variables. The 10 predictor model was able to account for 56% of the variance in total PTG, F(10,
214) = 27.218, p < .001, R2 = .56, 90% CI [.35, .72]. Each of the predictor variables had a significant (p < .01) zero‐
order correlation with PTG and its subscales (see Table 1), but only deliberate rumination, positive reappraisal, and
spiritual rituals predictors had significant (p < .05) partial effects in the full model (see Table 2). In the particular case
of spiritual PTG, beta weights for intrusive rumination and inhibition were also significant.
As shown in Table 2, intrusive rumination did not have a significant partial effect in the full model of PTG‐OR and
PTG‐SP, but it did have significant partial effects in the full model of both total PTG and PTG‐SC. Subjective severity
did not reach significant partial effects in either of the models tested, confirming the hypothesis considering total or
partial mediation. Based on the above analysis, in the subsequent step, we tested the mediation hypotheses. Consid-
ering that only deliberate rumination, positive reappraisal, and spiritual rituals have shown statistically significant
effects, we performed multiple mediation analysis between subjective severity and PTG. The indirect effect was esti-
mated to lie between 2.93 and 5.48 CI (M = 4.21; SD = 0.65). Because zero is not in the 95% confidence interval for
the analyses, it could be concluded that the indirect effects were significantly different from zero at p < .001 and that
the relationship between PTG and severity was fully mediated by communal coping of appraisal and rituals and intru-
sive and deliberate rumination (see Figure 1).

4 | DISCUSSION

In this study, we sought to examine the relationship between subjective severity of trauma and PTG as well as the
mediating role of cognitive strategies such as intrusive and deliberative rumination and communal coping strategies
in the context of the response to an earthquake in Chile. The result provided support that PTG was simultaneously
shaped by both intrusive and deliberative rumination, and by communal positive reappraisal and participation in spir-
itual rituals, which accounted for the positive relation between subjective severity and PTG. This finding is important
6 GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK

TABLE 2 Multiple regression of subjective severity, rumination, and communal copping strategies on posttraumatic
growth and its subfactors (N = 225)
PTG PTG‐OR PTG‐SP PTG‐SC
R2 = .56 R2 = .53 R2 = .52 R2 = .52
β t value β t value β t value β t value

(Constante) −0.760 −0.622 −0.319 −2.687

SS .05 0.953 .02 0.409 .07 1.340 .00 0.015
IR .14 2.241* .12 1.924 .11 1.799 .23 3.678***
DR .38 6.325*** .39 6.219*** .39 6.185*** .19 3.051**
CCS‐CD .10 1.916 .11 1.982* .10 1.839 .05 0.813
CCS‐REE .01 0.210 .03 0.458 −.01 −0.088 .05 0.775
CCS‐I .09 1.774 .07 1.347 .09 1.633 .13 2.423*
CCS‐SS −.03 −0.536 −.02 −0.302 −.03 −0.516 −.06 −0.914
CCS‐PR .19 3.211** .18 2.910** .19 3.145** .13 2.207*
CCS‐SR .23 4.443*** .21 3.906*** .19 3.540*** .39 7.167***
CCS‐CG −.07 −1.367 −.06 −1.192 −.06 −1.214 −.09 −1.648

Note: CCS‐CD = communal coping strategy–communal distraction; CCS‐CG = collective gatherings; CCS‐I = inhibition;
CCS‐REE = regulated emotional expression; CCS‐PR = positive reappraisal; CCS‐SR = spiritual rituals; CCS‐SS = social
support; DR = deliberative rumination; PTG = posttraumatic growth; PTG‐OR = other relations; PTG‐SC = spiritual change;
PTG‐SP = self‐perception; SS = subjective severity.

FIGURE 1 Relations between subjective severity of the event and posttraumatic growth mediated by communal
and cognitive strategies. CCS = communal coping strategy

in the context of psychological therapy and practice at the individual level but even more importantly in the context
of the risk prevention and management.
Our results supported the nation that there is a positive linear relationship between distress and the experience
of PTG (Poulin, Silver, Gil‐Rivas, Holman, & McIntosh, 2009). Accordingly, we found evidences that are congruent
with previous studies in Chilean context that postulated a positive relationship between subjective severity and
PTG (García & Wlodarczyk, 2016). In our study, the relationship between subjective severity of the event was totally
mediated by intrusive and deliberative rumination. The direct effect of deliberative rumination on PTG was found to
be stronger than the one of intrusive rumination. This result is in line with previous findings that depict this kind of
repetitive thinking as more voluntary and oriented on understanding the experience (Cann et al., 2011). Intrusive
rumination, characterized as more automatic and negatively valances, was also found to be a significant mediator.
Some studies pointed out that intrusive rumination contributes to the development of PTG always when it is trans-
formed into deliberative rumination, because its persistence in time may be more related with the maintenance of
GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK 7

posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (Taku, Cann, Tedeschi, & Calhoun, 2009). It is worth mentioning that in case
of the analysis of the particular domains of PTG, intrusive rumination was a significantly associated only with per-
ceived spiritual growth. Therefore, considering that intrusive rumination is likely to be related to posttraumatic symp-
tomatology, it could indicate a possible dysfunctional nature of spiritual change. Posttraumatic stress disorder, and
especially re‐experimentation and avoidance, is related to spiritual change that is related to divine attribution and
is likely to produce isolation and denial of the reality.
Furthermore, in accordance with the recent empirical studies (Wlodarczyk, Basabe, Páez, Reyes, et al., 2016), we
found a positive association between intensity of traumatic experience, communal coping and perception of PTG.
Specifically, controlling for both types of rumination, positive communal reappraisal and participation in spiritual rit-
uals emerged as significant mediators between subjective severity and PTG (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2009). Furthermore,
it is likely that deliberative rumination may in turn play a mediating role between communal coping strategies and
PTG. In this vain, recent studies by García et al. (2016) have shown that deliberative rumination mediates the rela-
tionship not only between subjective severity and PTG, as in our study, but also among other individual variables
such as negative rumination, intrusive rumination, and problem‐focused coping. The evaluation of a sequential
mediational path model and the use of a more sophisticated analysis such as structural equation model that could
include a greater number of variables, both individual and collective ones, would be an interesting proposal for future
research.
Unfortunately, the cross‐sectional and retrospective design does not allow us for causal claims about the asso-
ciations between the study variables, the time needed in order to develop PTG, nor the evolution of the strength
of this positive effects after the collective trauma. Moreover, it is important to consider that the period of time that
has elapsed because the traumatic is directly related to the type of rumination that is predominant, and therefore, it
might be difficult to distinguish between positive reappraisal and PTG. Nevertheless, consistently with the previous
findings by Helgeson, Reynolds, and Tomich (2006), our results suggest that such effects remain strong even 2 years
after the occurrence of the collective trauma and additionally provide important insight into the role of cognitive and
communal aspect of coping and its relation to PTG.
In this regard, future research should test growth responses in more heterogeneous samples and with longitudi-
nal designs that incorporate measures before and after the occurrence of the disaster, as well as follow‐ups in order
to evaluate positive and negative changes over time and the mediating role of different type of coping strategies.
Accordingly, it is necessary to examine different types of natural disasters and their effects among different
populations.
Therefore, we consider that our study has a potential to contribute to the literature on PTG pointing out that
especially in the context of that collective traumatic experience such as a natural disaster. One must definitely con-
sider that individuals do not process stress alone but they are always constantly involved in social relations and
dynamics that may, in turn, help them to better overcome the adversity and reach a considerable level of growth.
Apart from the important role of cognitive processes (see Stockton et al., 2011), social and join interactions may also
play a significant role in fostering PTG. Taking into account the results of the study, we argue that the inclusion of
communal coping strategies may provide the authorities and psychologist with valuable information that is not con-
sidered in the analysis reported in the previous studies, which only analysed individual and communal coping strate-
gies separately.

ACKNOWLEDGEMEN TS
Special acknowledgement for Tomás Arias, Alia Awad, Nadia Calderón, Osvaldo Galaz, Leyla Herrera, and Nicolás
Mejías from Universidad de Concepción, Chile, for their collaboration in this research project.

ORCID
Anna Wlodarczyk http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2106-5324
8 GARCÍA AND WLODARCZYK

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How to cite this article: García FE, Wlodarczyk A. Communal coping and rumination in the aftermath of
Chile earthquake: Multiple mediation analysis of the relationship between subjective severity and posttrau-
matic growth. J Community Appl Soc Psychol. 2018;1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2350