Name _________________________ Period _____ Date __________

The Integumentary System

Overview:

The integument, or skin, is an organ that must protect the body from invasion by
disease organisms; prevent water loss (in excess); help maintain a constant body
temperature; excrete wastes; and heal itself. It is tough yet pliable, and well supplied
with blood vessels, glands and sensory nerve endings (receptors). Sensory receptors
include thermo (hot cold), pain (chemical, thermo, and mechanical), itch, and pressure
sensors. Sweat glands, oil glands, nails, and hair are all accessory organs and
derivatives of the skin.

Objectives:

1. To identify major structural characteristics of skin and its appendages.

2. To compare the distribution of sweat glands in two locations in the body.
3. To visualize changes in skin color due to environmental factors.
4. To identify your fingerprints as one of three basic types.
5. To investigate the density of touch receptors, tactile localization, and
adaptation of touch in the skin.
6. To test the human body’s ability to sense differences in temperature, and to
regulate body temperature under various environmental conditions.

Experiments:

Activity A: Skin Structure

1. Using your textbook for reference and the terms listed below, color and label
the diagram of skin on the next page.
arrector pili muscle (red) blood vessel (red) dermal papilla dermis (pink)

epidermis (light blue) hair follicle (white) hair shaft (brown) hypodermis (yellow)

Pacinian corpuscle (green) sebaceous (oil) gland (yellow) stratum basale (white)

sudoriferous (sweat) gland (orange)

Skin Structure (cross-section)

2. About 25% of cells in the stratum basale layer in the epidermis are
melanocytes. Color approximately one-fourth of the cells black in this layer
on the diagram above.

3. The wavy junction (dermal papillae) between the epidermis and dermis is
responsible for the presence of ___________________, which develop
before birth. Name 2 functions of dermal papillae:
a) ________________________________________________________

b) ________________________________________________________

4. Cutaneous glands and hair follicles originate in the _____________ layer

of the skin.

5. Each hair follicle has at least one ___________ gland associated with it.
What role does sebum have? _______________________________
6. a) What happens to hair follicles when arrector pili muscles contract?
________________________________________________________

b) This results in a condition commonly known as ____________________.

Activity B: Microscopic Examination of Hair

1. Pull out one strand of scalp hair

and lay the hair horizontally on
a glass slide.
Make a wet-mount slide with water.

2. Observe the medulla (central core) and

the surrounding cortex of the shaft
using the compound light microscope on
scan (40X).

3. Switch to a higher power to view and draw a few

overlapping squamous epithelial cells of
the thin outer cuticle.

4. If someone is willing to donate hair with “split ends”,

compare the cuticle of hair with split ends
with undamaged hair. Total Magnification ______

Activity C: Creating “Sweat Maps”

1. For this simple experiment, get 2 squares of heavy paper (1cm x 1cm),
adhesive tape, Lugol’s iodine and a cotton-tipped swab.

2. Using the iodine solution, paint an area on the medial aspect of your left
palm (avoid the crease lines) and a region of your left forearm. Allow the
iodine solution to dry thoroughly. The painted area in each case should be
slightly larger than the paper squares to be used.

3. Mark one piece of paper with an “H” (hand) and the other with an “A” (arm).
Securely tape the appropriate squares of paper over each iodine-painted
area, and leave them in place for 20 minutes. (While waiting to determine
the results, continue with other parts of the lab.)

4. After 20 minutes, remove the paper squares and compare the number of blue-
black dots on each square. The appearance of a blue-black dot on the
paper indicates an active sweat gland. Thus, “sweat maps” have been
produced for the two skin areas. Record activity in Table 1 (on the next page).
 Table 1 Sweat gland density

Location Hand Forearm

Comparison of sweat
gland activity

5. Observe the ventral (palmar) surface of your fingertips using a dissecting

microscope (make sure the superior light source is turned on). Closely
examine your fingerprint ridges, and observe several small circular
indentations that run along the top of each ridge. Each indentation is the
opening (pore) of a sweat gland. You may notice that some openings have
droplets of water, and if your hands are sweaty, you may be able to observe
the glands actively secreting sweat.
6. Two types of sweat glands are found in the body. Describe the locations and
secretions of each.

eccrine glands: ________________________________________________

apocrine glands: _______________________________________________

7. a) When do apocrine glands first become active? _____________________

b) Why do their secretions often have an unpleasant odor? ______________
___________________________________________________________

Activity D: Visualizing Changes in Skin Color

1. Press the heel of your hand firmly against a flat portion of a glass slide for a
few seconds. Observe and record the color of your skin in the compressed
area by looking through the glass.
a) Color of compressed skin ____________________
b) What is the reason for this color change? __________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Color changes in skin can indicate health problems. What might be a reason
for the following color changes in the skin?
blue: __________________________ yellow: _________________________
Activity E: Fingerprints
All fingers, toes, feet, and palms are covered in small ridges. These raised parts of the
dermis are arranged in connected units called dermal, or friction, ridges. They help us
with our grip on objects that we touch. When these ridges press against things, they
leave a mark, an impression called a fingerprint. The imprint of a fingerprint consists
of natural secretions of the sweat glands that are present in the friction ridge of the
skin. These secretions are a combination of mainly water, oils, and salts. Dirt from
everyday activities is also mixed into these secretions. Anytime you touch something,
you leave behind traces of these substances in the unique pattern of your dermal
ridges.

1. On a lined 3 × 5 card, rub the end of a graphite pencil in a back-and-forth

motion, creating a patch of graphite about 2 by 3 inches.
2. Rub your right index finger across the graphite patch, gently rolling from side to
side so that the fingertip becomes coated with graphite from the first joint in the
finger to the tip, and from fingernail edge to fingernail edge.
3. Tear off a piece of clear adhesive tape about 2 inches long. Carefully press the
sticky side of the tape onto your finger from the edge of your fingernail across
your finger pad to the other side of your fingernail.
4. Gently peel off the tape and place it sticky side down inside the box provided
below.
5. Examine your fingerprint using a magnifying glass and compare to the pictured
samples below.
7. Identify your fingerprint pattern. About 65 percent of the total population has
loops, 30 percent have whorls, and 5 percent have arches.

Arches Whorls Loops

Fingerprint Pattern: ______________

8. Class percentages:
Arches ____= ____% Whorls ____= ____% Loops ____= ____%
 The following activities investigate the location and physiology of cutaneous
receptors. Work in pairs with one person as the subject and the other as the
experimenter, then switch roles.

Activity F: Two-Point Discrimination Test

The density of the touch receptors varies significantly in different areas of the body. In
general, areas having the greatest density of tactile receptors have a heightened
ability to “feel”. Using a caliper or device designed for two-point discrimination, test
the ability of the subject to differentiate two distinct sensations when the skin is
touched simultaneously at two points.

1. The subject’s eyes should be closed during testing. For each body location
in Table 2, the experimenter should make a series of about 5 light taps on the
skin, with about 1 second between each tap.
2. The test will work best if the point spacing is randomly changed so that the
subject does not have knowledge of the actual spacing of the two points

3. The smallest distance at which two points can be felt is known as the
two-point threshold. Record this distance in Table 2 below.
4. Repeat steps 1 – 3 for all the body areas listed in Table 2.

Table 2 Two-Point Discrimination

Body Area Two-Point
Tested Threshold (mm)
Face (cheek)
Back of hand
Palm of hand
Fingertip
Lips
Back of neck
Ventral forearm
Back of Leg (calf)

5. What conclusions can you make based on your data (most and least sensitive
areas)? _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
 It is possible to prevent visual stimuli from entering our consciousness,
but we can never voluntarily shut down our sense of touch!
6. Perception of touch (as with all senses) actually occurs in the brain, not in the
body. Find an image of a sensory homunculus (Google). This figure
represents the relative number of neurons devoted to sensations of touch in
different parts of the body. The larger the body part is in the homunculus, the
greater the density of sensory neurons in that region. Does your data support
this model? Explain why or why not.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Activity G: Tactile Localization

Tactile localization is the ability to determine which portion of the skin has been
touched. The tactile receptor field of the body has a corresponding “touch” field in the
brain. Some body areas are well represented with touch receptors, and tactile stimuli
can be localized with great accuracy, but density of touch receptors in other body
areas allows only crude discrimination.
1. The subject’s eyes should be closed during the testing. The experimenter
touches the palm of the subject’s hand with a marker. The subject should
then try to touch the exact point with his/her own marker of a different color.
Repeat the test in the same spot twice more, keeping track of the order of
touches (1st, 2nd, 3rd attempts).
2. Measure the error of localization in millimeters for each attempt.
Average the three results and record in Table 3. Repeat this procedure
for the other body areas listed.

Table 3 Tactile Location

Error of Localization Average
Body Area (mm) Error of Localization
Tested (mm)
1st trial 2nd trial 3rd trial
Palm of hand
Fingertip
Ventral Forearm
Back of Hand

4. Did localization of the stimulus improve with the 2nd and 3rd trials? _________
Relate this to the idea “practice makes perfect” when learning a motor skill:
______________________________________________________________
Activity H: Distribution of Receptors in the Skin
Human skin is sensitive to touch, pain, temperature and pressure. This is due to the
presence of individual receptors in the skin for each of these various stimuli. The skin
contains touch receptors whose concentration differs at various parts of
the body. Touch receptors respond to any force that deforms the shape of their
plasma membrane. The contact receptors in the skin respond to pressure and touch.
When these receptors are stimulated they depolarize and transmit the impulse to your
brain where the information is then interpreted as a sensation.

1. Use a rubber grid stamp to stamp a grid on the inside of your partner’s
forearm or draw a grid approximately the same size as one of the grids below.

2. Have your partner turn away and not watch while you touch a square, at
random, with any of the following stimuli at least TEN times each.
a) touch - bristles of a brush
b) warm - probe placed in a hot water bath (dry before testing)
c) cold - probe placed in an ice bath (dry before testing)
3. Record x in the locations you tested in the grid areas for “Stimulus”.
Record + in the locations your partner correctly identified and – in the
locations not correctly identified for “Sensation” .

Touch Warm Cold

Location of
Stimulus
Application

Location of
Detected
Sensation

TOTAL
Applied Stimuli __________ __________ __________

Detected Stimuli __________ __________ __________

4. Which of the three types of receptors tested were the most numerous in the
skin? Why do you think they were the most numerous?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Which receptors tested were the least numerous? Propose a reason why.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

6. Some physiologists believe there are separate receptors for both heat and
cold. Others believe that the same receptors are responsible for heat and cold,
but the brain (based on learning) detects the differences between heat and
cold. Which hypothesis does your data support? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Activity I: Temperature Perception and Referred Pain

Thermoreceptors in the skin consist of free nerve endings. Cold receptors are
located in the epidermis and respond to temperatures between 50-60 degrees F.
Temperatures below 50 degrees cause pain and a “freezing” sensation. Hot
receptors are located in the dermis and respond to temperatures between 90 and 118
degrees F. Temperatures above 113 degrees cause pain and a “burning” sensation.
Referred pain is the perception that pain is felt in a part of the body different from the
part that is actually generating the pain. This is typically due to the convergence of
sensory receptors from two different areas of the body, making it more difficult for the
brain to determine the exact source.

1. Instruct the subject to place his/her hand in each of three beakers

(in the order listed in Table 4 on the next page) for 10 seconds each:
hot, cold, tepid (lukewarm). Record your sensations in Table 4.
2. Between each sequence, allow ~1 minute wait until starting another sequence
(or until recovery).
Table 4 Perception of Temperature
Sequence Sensation
Tepid - Hot - Cold
Tepid - Cold - Hot
Hot - Tepid - Cold
Hot - Cold - Tepid
Cold - Tepid - Hot
Cold - Hot - Cold

3. Thermoreceptors rapidly adapt to their environment and then respond

strongly to a change in stimulus.
Refer to the diagram at the left. Notice that when skin
is exposed to a cold stimulus at point A, cold receptors
depolarize (cell membranes become less charged)
over time and the sensation of cold is lessened, while
warm receptors hyperpolarize (cell membranes
become more charged).
Explain what happens when skin is exposed to a
warm stimulus immediately after adaptation to
cold (point B): Warm receptors are still
( hyperpolarized depolarized ), the brain receives
A B more information from ( cold warm ) receptors
and our perception of heat is ( increased decreased ).
4. Referred Pain: Instruct the subject to place his/her elbow in the ice water beaker
for 2 minutes. Record location and type of sensation at the times listed in Table 5.
Table 5 Elbow in Ice Water - Referred Pain
Time Description and Location of Sensation
0 sec
60 sec
120 sec
(NOTE: The ulnar nerve, which controls the ring finger, little finger, and inner side of the hand,
passes over the elbow joint.)

5. Explain the reason for the sensations you recorded in Table 5. ______________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________