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Teaching and Researching Language Learning
Strategies
“This inspiring, innovative volume will captivate both strategy experts and newcomers.
Oxford’s profound theoretical explanations of strategic self-regulation are supported by
real-life scenarios, comprehensive reviews of research, and beautifully painted mental
images and metaphors. Oxford explains complex ideas in a clear, down-to-earth manner.
Readers, prepare yourselves for lively excursions of the mind and plenty of ‘aha’ moments.”
Carmen M. Amerstorfer, Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
Now in its second edition, Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: Self-Regulation
in Context charts the field systematically and coherently for the benefit of language learning
practitioners, students, and researchers. This volume carries on the author’s tradition of linking
theoretical insights with readability and practical utility and offers an enhanced Strategic Self-
Regulation Model. It is enriched by many new features, such as the first-ever major content
analysis of published learning strategy definitions, leading to a long-awaited, encompassing
strategy definition that, to a significant degree, brings order out of chaos in the strategy field.
Rebecca L. Oxford provides an intensive discussion of self-regulation, agency, and related
factors as the “soul of learning strategies.” She ushers the strategy field into the twenty first
century with the first in-depth treatment of strategies and complexity theory.
A major section is devoted to applications of learning strategies in all language skill areas
and in grammar and vocabulary. The last chapter presents innovations for strategy instruction,
such as ways to deepen and differentiate strategy instruction to meet individual needs; a useful,
scenario-based emotion regulation questionnaire; insights on new research methods; and results
of two strategy instruction meta-analyses. This revised edition includes in-depth questions,
tasks, and projects for readers in every chapter. This is the ideal textbook for upper-level
undergraduate and graduate courses in TESOL, ELT, education, linguistics, and psychology.
Rebecca L. Oxford is Professor Emerita and Distinguished Scholar-Teacher at the University

of Maryland and Adjunct Professor and Program Evaluator at two branches of the University
of Alabama. She currently co-edits two book series, Transforming Education for the Future and
Spirituality, Religion, and Education.
“I welcome this masterly work from a renowned scholar. It is fresh, comprehensive,
scholarly and readable. Oxford explores the quagmire of definitions of strategies leading
to an integrated definition, and links strategies to self-regulation, autonomy and agency,
giving us new ways of viewing this construct. Once again she moves the field forward.”
— Marion Williams
“This book advances our understanding of the complexities of language learning strategies,
their diverse theoretical underpinnings, and the individual variations and shifting shapes
that characterize them. Rebecca Oxford discusses how complexity theory relates to
language learning strategies, develops her S2R Model, and provides numerous practical
applications for language teachers.”
— Anna Uhl Chamot, The George Washington University, USA
“This long-awaited book presents an excellent linkage between theoretical insights with
practical applications, and brings strategy research into a new era. A particular strength
is the range of topics it covers: an enhanced Strategic Self-Regulation Model, complexity
theory, agency, autonomy, skill-based strategies, and strategy instruction. It also provides
an encompassing strategy definition. I commend this comprehensive book highly.”
— Osamu Takeuchi, Kansai University, Japan
“Rebecca Oxford‘s new book takes language learning strategies to a new level. It enhances
her 2011 S2R Model with a wealth of theoretical insights. Her freeing of strategies from
rigid categories while assigning to them multiple roles creates a new perspective that
revolutionalises the strategy field. It is definitely a book for teachers, researchers and
students looking for practical teaching and researching ideas, and up-to-date references.”
— Angeliki Psaltou-Joycey, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
“I’m speechless at the breadth and depth of all that is included in Rebecca Oxford’s new
strategy volume. This is the most in-depth, comprehensive, and original book ever written
on L2 learning strategies. It looks at this important construct from affective, cognitive,
and social perspectives; emphasizes the dynamism of strategies in context; and makes clear
the power of strategies in learning and teaching. I love everything about the book – the
way it is written, the references, and the wonderful questions in each chapter. It is a must-
read for researchers and teachers all over the world.”
— Ana Maria F. Barcelos, Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil
A Note about the Cover Photo from the Author:

In the cover photo, which I photographed in Nepal, the boats represent vehicles intended to
take learners across the vast lake of language learning. Language learners without strategic self-
regulation row unsound boats aimlessly and confusingly and sometimes capsize, but strategically
self-regulated learners row sound boats effectively toward learning goals. Excellent strategy
instruction and assessment can add to the power and direction of every boat on the lake.
(Color editing by Rebecca L. Oxford, Josephine E. Cox, and John Maloney at Routledge.)
Teaching and Researching Language
Learning Strategies
Self-Regulation in Context
Second Edition
Rebecca L. Oxford
Second edition published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Rebecca L. Oxford to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published 2011 by Pearson Education Limited and 2013
by Routledge
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested.
ISBN: 978-1-138-85679-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-85680-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-71914-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Goudy
by HWA Text and Data Management, London
I dedicate this book to my husband, Clifford Stocking, and to Rhea.
I also dedicate this book to the goal of peace and mutual understanding. That is the aim of my
work in language learning and teaching.
Finally, I dedicate this volume to all language learners, especially those who are refugees and
immigrants, and anyone else undergoing transition.
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Contents
List of Figures ix
List of Tables x
Acknowledgments xi
Series Editors’ Preface xii
Preface xiv
Introduction 1
SECTION A
Focusing: Greater Clarity for Definitions and Theories 5
1 Bringing Order out of Chaos: Definitions and Features of Language

Learning Strategies 7
2 The Soul of L2 Learning Strategies: Self-Regulation, Agency,

Autonomy, and Associated Factors in the Strategic Self-Regulation
(S2R) Model 65
3 Context, Complexity, and Learning Strategies: Recognizing the

Crucial Triad 101
SECTION B
Flexibility and Function: Understanding L2 Learning Strategies
According to Their Roles in Context 139
4 Strategy Role Flexibility, Denial of Dualisms, and Metastrategies in

Context 141
5 The Multiple Self: Self-Regulation Strategies for Cognitive,

Motivational, and Social Domains 170
viii Contents
6 The Multiple Self, Continued: Emotion Self-Regulation Strategies 213
SECTION C
Live Applications: Strategies in the Skill Areas and the Language
Subsystems 241
7 Strategies for L2 Grammar and Vocabulary in Context 243
8 Strategies for L2 Reading and Writing in Context 272
9 Strategies for Listening, Phonology, Pronunciation, Speaking/Oral

Communication, and Pragmatics in Context 289
SECTION D
Innovations: Strategy Instruction, Assessment, and Research 307
10 Innovations (and Potential Innovations) in Strategy Instruction,

Strategy Assessment, and Strategy Research 309
Postscript: Brief Summary of the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R)

Theory 339
Appendix A: Definitions of and Comments about Second Language, Foreign

Language, and Other Associated Terms 341
Appendix B: Sources of Quotations in Epigraphs 345
About the Author 348
Index 349
Figures
1.1 The Forms of Strategies Identified in the Definitions, Indicating Mental

Action (Process) as the Central Feature for All Strategy Forms 25
1.2 An Interpretation of Schmidt’s (1995) Four Dimensions of Consciousness 39
1.3 A Sample Strategy Chain for Reading an L2 Article 42
2.1 Generalized Task Phase Sequence for Self-Regulated Learning 73
2.2 Task Phase Sequence for Self-Regulated Learning Using Specific SRL Terms 74
2.3 SRL Task Phases with Strategies and Contexts 75
2.4 L2 Learning Strategies in Relation to Attribution Theory 90
3.1 Bronfenbrenner’s Model 106
4.1 The Two Silos: Never the Twain Shall Meet 153
4.2 Silos Gone – Language Learning and Language Use Interacting 153
4.3 Language Learning and Language Use Sundered 154
4.4 Language Learning and Language Use Overlapping 154
4.5 Language Learning and Language Use as Fractured Lines 154
4.6 Continuum of Language Learning and Language Use 154
4.7 Types of Metaknowledge Necessary for Optimal Strategy/Metastrategy Use 156
4.8 Metastrategies Guide the Use of Cognitive, Affective, Motivational, and
Social Strategies (“Orchestrating” Metaphor) 159
4.9 Metastrategies as the Overarching Guides 161
4.10 Language Learning and Language Use Strongly Overlapping, with All
Categories of Strategies and Metastrategies Serving Both Learning and Use 163
Tables
1.1 The Data: Definitions of “Language Learning Strategies,” “Learner Strategies,”

“Self-Regulated Learning Strategies,” “Strategies,” and “Strategic” 14
1.2 Emergent Theme Identification Guide for Strategy Definitions: 19 Themes 19
1.3 Analyzing Definitions by Emergent Themes 22
1.4 Results for Master Themes across the 33 Definitions 24
1.5 An Encompassing Definition of L2 Learning Strategies, Identifying
Prototypical Factors 48
2.1 Scope of Agency Definitions 78
2.2 Comparison of Self-Regulation, Agency, and Autonomy with Applications
to Learning Strategies 82
2.3 A Growth Mindset versus a Fixed Mindset – Contrasting Beliefs 84
2.4 Comparing Sociocultural and Psychological Perspectives on SRL 93
4.1 Some Separatists in the L2 Field (Ordered Roughly Chronologically) 149
4.2 Some Amalgamators in the L2 Field (Ordered Roughly Chronologically) 150
4.3 Some Amalgamators Outside of the L2 Field 152
4.4 Six Types of Metaknowledge for Optimal Strategy/Metastrategy Use 157
4.5 Metastrategy Sets and Strategy Sets in the Four S2R Domains, with
Metaphors Noted 160
4.6 Domains, Metastrategy Sets, Strategy Sets, and Metaphors 161
4.7 Examples of Strategies in Context 162
4.8 Soderstrom and Bjork (2015) on Learning and Performance 166
5.1 Stages in Cognitive Information-Processing 174
5.2 New Knowledge of a Strategy Moving from Declarative to Procedural Knowledge 176
5.3 How Activity Theory Provides a Useful Context for Terms in the S2R Model 177
5.4 Components of Leontiev’s Activity Theory with a Focus on Joseph’s
Changing Conditions and Learning Strategies over Time 178
5.5 Types of Cognitive Load and How L2 Learning Strategies Relate to Them 179
5.6 Synopsis of Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory, a Continuum 185
5.7 Elements of Sociocultural Competence and Related Strategies 202
6.1 Emotional Issues, Relevant Strategies, Strategy Instruction, and Strategy
Research 234
6.2 Activity on Identifying Affective and Meta-Affective Strategies for Specific
Learners 235
7.1 A Summary of Pawlak’s Grammar Learning Strategy Taxonomy 253
7.2 What It Means to Know a Word 255
PS-1 Domains, Metastrategies, Corresponding Strategies, and Their Metaphors 340
Acknowledgments
My greatest thanks go to my husband, Clifford Stocking, who inspires me, gives me joy, and
offers constant support and unfathomable patience, even when I am writing at three in the
morning or flying off to Poland, Turkey, or Austria to discuss learning strategies. I especially
thank Tammy Gregersen, Peter MacIntyre, Carmen Amerstorfer, Sarah Mercer, Christina
Gkonou, and Andrew Cohen, who offered enthusiasm, humor, depths of knowledge, ideas,
criticisms, and access to their own writings during our ongoing discussions about strategies
and psychology. I am immensely grateful to several complexity experts (Peter MacIntyre,
Diane Larsen-Freeman, and Phillip Hiver), who personally critiqued my chapter on context,
complexity, and strategies and who shared their writings with me. I will never forget! Thanks
to Zoltán Dörnyei for kindly introducing me to Phillip. In addition, Zoltán’s early, strategy-
skeptical arguments spurred me to redouble my efforts in strategy definition, theory, and
research.
I am grateful to three current strategy partners: Carmen Amerstorfer, co-editor of a strategy
volume for Bloomsbury; Mirosław Pawlak, co-editor of a special issue on strategies for Studies in
Second Language Learning and Teaching; and Christina Gkonou, chapter co-author for another
book, as well as initiator, co-author and co-validator of a scenario-based, strategic emotion-
regulation questionnaire. I offer gratitude to Pamela Gunning, Peter Gu, Ernesto Macaro,
and Carol Griffiths (my 2014 System special issue co-editor), all of whom shared their ideas
during my writing. Anna Chamot and Vee Harris deserve gratitude for orchestrating a major
international sharing of ideas on strategy instruction. Many thanks, of course, to my friend
Joan Rubin, who started the strategy movement in second language learning in 1975 and has
been an active contributor and inspiration ever since. Though I do not personally know them,
Heath Rose and Luke Plonsky have my admiration and thanks for significantly moving the
field ahead.
I am also incredibly grateful to Kathrene Binag, who guided this project on behalf of
Routledge. Without Kathrene’s indefatigable efforts, this book would not be available to the
public. Rebecca Novack of Routledge and John Hodgson of HWA also provided necessary
support. Thanks to Laura Walker, who worked for months to find published resources for this
book, and to family members and local friends who gave me mental and emotional support for
this project, even when continually asking, “Is it done yet?”
No acknowledgments are ever complete, so I will simply end with words of gratitude for life
itself: Gracias a la vida, que me ha dado tanto (“Thanks to life for giving me so much”) from the
song by Violeta Parra. I have a good lakeside friend who would applaud that.
Peace,
Rebecca L. Oxford
Series Editors’ Preface
Note from Routledge: Christopher Candlin and David Hall were founding editors of the Applied
Linguistics in Action series when Pearson Education Limited was the series’ publisher. After
David passed away in February 2014, Christopher continued as general editor of the series for
Routledge until his passing away in May 2015. To honor their invaluable work for and involvement
in books that they commissioned for the series, we are retaining their original series preface for
this volume.
Applied Linguistics in Action, as its name suggests, is a series which focuses on the issues and
challenges to teachers and researchers in a range of fields in Applied Linguistics and provides
readers and users with the tools they need to carry out their own practice-related research.
The books in the series provide the reader with clear, up-to-date, accessible, and authoritative
accounts of their chosen field within applied linguistics. Starting from a map of the landscape
of the field, each book provides information on its main ideas and concepts, competing issues
and unsolved questions. From there, readers can explore a range of practical applications of
research into those issues and questions, and then take up the challenge of undertaking their
own research, guided by the detailed and explicit research guides provided. Finally, each book
has a section which provides a rich array of resources, information sources and further reading,
as well as a key to the principal concepts of the field.
Questions the books in this innovative series ask are those familiar to all teachers and
researchers, whether very experienced, or new to the fields of applied linguistics.
v What does research tell us, what doesn’t it tell us, and what should it tell us about the
field? How is the field mapped and landscaped? What is its geography?
v How has research been applied and what interesting research possibilities does practice
raise? What are the issues we need to explore and explain?
v What are the key researchable topics that practitioners can undertake? How can the
research be turned into practical action?
v Where are the important resources that teachers and researchers need? Who has the
information? How can it be accessed?
Each book in the series has been carefully designed to be as accessible as possible, with built-
in features to enable readers to find what they want quickly and to home in on the key issues
and themes that concern them. The structure is to move from practice to theory and back to
practice in a cycle of development of understanding of the field in question.
Each of the authors of books in the series is an acknowledged authority, able to bring broad
knowledge and experience to engage teachers and researchers in following up their own ideas,
working with them to build further on their own experience.
Series Editors’ Preface xiii
The first editions of books in this series have attracted widespread praise for their authorship,
their design, and their content, and have been widely used to support practice and research.
The success of the series, and the realization that it needs to stay relevant in a world where new
research is being conducted and published at a rapid rate, have prompted the commissioning of
this second edition. This new edition has been thoroughly updated, with accounts of research
that has appeared since the previous edition and with the addition of other relevant material.
We trust that students, teachers and researchers will continue to discover inspiration in these
pages to underpin their own investigations.
Chris Candlin
David Hall
Preface
Perhaps the notion of strategies for language learning is as obvious as the notion that a carpenter
needs tools. Yet the concept of strategies has been surprisingly controversial. In our book
Capitalizing on Language Learners’ Individuality, we describe the pursuit of a precise definition of
strategies as “elusive” because the difficult work of harmonizing the many available definitions
had not been done. With the present text, we are happy to say the work is done now.
This is Oxford’s fourth book on learning strategies and arguably her best. It is comprehensive,
fresh, exciting, and informative. This volume carries on the author’s tradition of linking
theoretical insights with readability and practical utility and offers an enhanced Strategic
Self-Regulation Model. Oxford adds many new features, such as the first-ever major content
analysis of published learning strategy definitions, leading to a long-awaited, encompassing
strategy definition. This work represents some of the heavy lifting required to move forward
with strategy research so that teachers and learners alike can benefit from knowing what
strategies are, how to use them, and how to evaluate their effectiveness. Each chapter in the
whole book has extensive questions, tasks, and activities that help make the ideas their own.
Oxford provides an intensive discussion of self-regulation, agency, and autonomy as the
“soul of learning strategies.” She not only presents the information in a lively, narrative
fashion, but she also presents her own mini-study with tables that compare various language
learning theorists’ ideas of self-regulation, agency, and autonomy and show how these connect
with strategies. Intriguingly, she draws upon closely related themes such as mindsets and hope
that have rarely, if ever, been the focus of learning strategy research; she clearly links them with
strategies and calls for empirical studies.
Oxford brings the strategy field into the modern age with the first in-depth treatment of
strategies and complexity theory. We find it amazing that the language learning strategy field
and the field of complexity in language learning have not yet had an in-depth, joint treatment
before this. Oxford has done the job. In several chapters Oxford tackles the complexity of
strategies head-on. Oxford’s discussion will undoubtedly assist teachers and learners in
better understanding not only what they are doing when thinking strategically, but also
in understanding why, in spite of best efforts, strategies sometimes do not work exactly as
envisioned. Perhaps it is a sign of maturity when a person comes to realize that things are
never as simple as they seem, or as predictable one might initially think. Along similar lines,
Oxford uses a complexity perspective to show, in an engaging, approachable, and personal
way, how complexity can be a guiding metaphor for the field of strategies and how it foster our
understanding of self-regulation, agency, and autonomy in relation to strategies.
Two important chapters depict the “multiple self” of the learner in cognitive, motivational,
social, and emotional domains. These chapters offer a background on the domains and also
present expertly organized examples of self-regulation strategies in each of the domains. Oxford
Preface xv
is wisely averse to the idea of a strategy taxonomy because a given strategy can have multiple
roles across domains, but she presents a fascinating, structured way to look at strategies while
continually reminding readers about strategy flexibility.
A major section of this book is devoted to applications of learning strategies in all language
skill areas and in grammar and vocabulary. Readers will find a highly contextualized presentation
of the issues faced by teachers and learners as shown in representative research from around the
world. Oxford’s writing is delightful in this section, just as in the entire book. Grammar and
vocabulary learning strategies can be a daunting subject, but Oxford makes them manageable
and even entertaining. For instance, she says the “grammar learning strategy weather report”
is “cloudy but clearing,” and she uses humor and a light touch in describing a vocabulary
study and presenting some of the end-of-chapter questions, tasks, and projects for readers. The
chapter on strategies for reading and writing is masterful in conveying potentially difficult
themes, theories, and studies in a straightforward and appealing way. Oxford’s treatment of
listening and speaking goes far beyond what might be expected. It treats not just the former
“Cinderella” of strategies (listening strategies), but also presents an overview of strategy studies
in phonology, phonetics, oral communication, and pragmatics. In this section, Oxford not only
summarizes foundational research but makes sure to introduce some of the most recent studies,
always in a meaningful and useful way. The quality of Oxford’s current thinking emerges clearly
in the writing.
The final chapter presents potential innovations for strategy instruction, such as ways to
deepen and differentiate it to meet individual needs. That chapter additionally presents results
of two meta-analyses on effects of strategy instruction, includes a new, scenario-based emotion-
regulation questionnaire, and suggests promising strategy research methods.
This book is a serious move in a new direction for strategies, one that is centered on
harmonizing the field and moving it forward. Oxford does not shy away from the issues and
controversies that have emerged in the field over the years, but rather she deals with them in
a principled manner. The result is a book that pushes the strategy field in new and valuable
directions, even as this project itself reflects the complexity of the work.There is a great deal to
recommend this book and we trust that readers will be as inspired by it as we are.
Peter MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Tammy Gregersen
University of Northern Iowa
Introduction
This is the second edition of Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies, originally
published in 2011. It offers new ways of understanding, teaching, and investigating second and
foreign language (L2) strategies. Unlike other books on this topic, it integrates two diverse
though complementary theories – self-regulated learning (SRL) theory and complexity theory
– and systematically uses these important theories to shed light on the teaching and researching
of L2 learning strategies.
Who Are This Book’s Readers?

This book will be valuable to L2 teachers who want to help K-12, university-level, and adult
students learn more effectively by means of learning strategies. In addition, L2 learning
theorists, researchers, and university teachers in various areas (L2 instructional methods,
second language acquisition, learning strategies, cross-cultural studies, educational psychology,
and other subjects) will gain much from this book. All readers are likely to be interested in
the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R) Model, as well as related concepts (agency, autonomy,
hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and mindsets) included in this book. The discussion of strategies
and complexity theory will capture the imagination of many readers due to the many L2
learning strategy examples that are included. Readers will want to know about different types
of learning strategies contained in this book and will benefit from all-new information on
strategy instruction, assessment, and research.
What Are the Goals of the Second Edition, and How Is It Different from the
First Edition?
This book is dramatically new and different. The goals of this second edition build on those
of the prior edition, but new goals were added. Every chapter has been rewritten, and new
chapters have been added. This book’s goals and their descriptions are as follows.
Goal 1. Take Strong Leadership on Strategy Definitions

This volume aims toward clarity and strength in defining strategies. There have historically
been dozens of conflicting definitions of learning strategies, leading to chaos and to some
condemnations of the field. This book presents the first-ever content analyses of these
definitions, with the goal of bringing order out of chaos. The result is an encompassing,
integrated strategy definition for the first time and a call for discussion and general consensus.
2 Introduction
Goal 2. Highlight SRL and Related Themes
This volume makes SRL, agency, autonomy, and mindsets highly prominent. The first edition
highlighted the use of L2 learning strategies for self-regulation in cognitive, affective, and
social areas and mentioned various approaches to self-regulated learning, but the second
edition is much more systematic in carrying self-regulation into all parts of the volume.
Goal 3: Emphasize Context

This book expands the definition of L2 learning strategies so as to emphasize context. The first
edition mentioned context numerous times but did not present it theoretically. This edition
illuminates the important contextual base of L2 learning strategies in a theoretically and
practically meaningful way.
Goal 4: Interweave Strategies, Context, and Complexity Theory

This book introduces complexity theory, in which context plays a major role, and shows how its
tenets can shed light on strategies. Complexity theory, which highlights dynamism (change),
nonlinear relationships, and context, helps explain many aspects of L2 learning. Complexity
theory might well help us understand sociocultural identities and imbalances of power,
misrecognition of the individual, and different trajectories of various strategy-using L2
learners. This book might start a new, complexity-related movement in strategy assessment,
instruction, and research.
Goal 5: Look at Strategies in New Ways

This book emphasizes that strategies are not bound by traditional categories. For instance, a student
employs a traditionally cognitive strategy, such as analyzing, to understand how to adjust his
emotional state (see Arnold’s story in Chapter 3). Reading strategies affect not only reading
competence but also writing competence (see Chapter 8). Strategies for L2 learning cannot be
divorced from strategies for L2 use (see Chapter 4). Many other examples are given.
Goal 6: Seriously Synthesize Knowledge about Strategies for Specific Skills and Areas
This book provides intensive treatments of L2 learning strategy research related to various L2 skills
and areas, e.g., reading, listening, writing, speaking, pragmatics, pronunciation, phonology,
vocabulary, and grammar. This is a major expansion as well as an update.
Goal 7: Offer Powerful, New Ideas for Strategy Instruction, Assessment, and Research
This book presents innovations and potential innovations related to strategy instruction, assessment,
and research. One of these ideas is differentiation of strategy instruction, reflecting the fact
that L2 learners are not all alike in their learning needs. Deepening strategy instruction to
make it more personally valuable for autonomy could be transformative for learners. Scenario-
based strategy assessment, such as the work led by Christina Gkonou and me, makes the
measurement of strategies much more authentic, as does actual task-based assessment. A new
scenario-based, emotion-regulation questionnaire is included. Complexity theory opens new
doors for potentially important research methods, such as retrodictive qualitative modeling
and the idiodynamic method, both of which could help us understand strategy change over
time and in great detail and which enable us to grasp two-way influences. Parts of the book also
Introduction 3
emphasize narrative methodology, which has been used for strategy research in the past and
which coordinates well with the new complexity methods.
How Is This Book Organized?

The book is organized as follows. Section A, Focusing: Greater Clarity for Definitions and
Theories, contains Chapters 1 through 3. It brings order out of intellectual chaos concerning
strategy definitions and features; emphasizes how strategies relate to self-regulation, agency,
autonomy, and associated factors; and squarely addresses the crucial triad of context, complexity,
and learning strategies.
Section B, Flexibility and Function: Understanding L2 Learning Strategies According to
Their Roles in Context, includes Chapters 4 through 6. These chapters present strategies and
metastrategies according to specific categories within four domains: cognitive, motivational,
social, and affective (emotional). However, the chapters tell us – and this may be a new
message to many readers – that strategies and metastrategies cannot be pinned down to any
given category for all time; from moment to moment, strategies and metastrategies operate
more fluidly than researchers in the past ever thought possible. Section B also uses extensive
evidence to caution against the duality of language learning strategies and language use
strategies.
Chapters 7, 8, and 9 in Section C, Live Applications: Strategies in the Skill Areas and the
Language Subsystems draw on extensive research to present the state of the art in strategies
for grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing, listening, phonology, pronunciation, speaking/oral
communication, and pragmatics in context.
Section D, Innovations: Strategy Instruction, Assessment, and Research, contains one
chapter, Chapter 10, which centers on innovations and potential innovations in the named
realms (strategy instruction, strategy assessment, and strategy research). Although the whole
book is innovative, this section and chapter are among the most eye-opening.
The not-to-be-missed postscript summarizes the entire S2R Model, elements of which have
been included throughout the book. Terminology issues are addressed in Appendix A, while
Appendix B provides sources of some quotations.
How Can This Book Be Used?

Some readers, including those with a concrete-sequential learning style or those for whom
the book’s subject is very new, might like to start at the beginning of the book and work their
way systematically to the end. Other readers, who come to the book with an intuitive-random
learning style or with a strong background in the area, might start at the back, dip into the
middle, jump to the front, then go to the back again, using a self-designed reading path that
meets their interests.
I suggest that all readers should read the beginning and the summary of a given chapter
and at least skim over the titles of the parts of a chapter. Each chapter contains a valuable
set of annotated further readings. The questions, tasks, and projects at each chapter’s close
are rich activities that will extend readers’ understanding of the chapter. Many of these
options encourage holding discussions with others, because nascent ideas often become more
developed when shared with others. These questions, tasks, and projects can be adapted for use
with classes and discussion groups, although they are equally valuable to individuals working
by themselves.
References
1 Bringing Order out of Chaos:

Definitions and Features of Language
Learning Strategies
Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P., & Paris, S. (2008). Clarifying

differences between reading skills and reading strategies.
The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364–373.
Amerstorfer, C. (2015, Oct.). [Convener] Situating strategy

use: language learning strategies and individual learner
characteristics. International conference, Alpen-Adria
University, Klagenfurt Austria.
Amerstorfer, C. (2016). Situated strategy use in a

cooperative learning environment: A descriptive case study
of five learners of English as a foreign language.
Unpublished doctoral thesis, Alpen-Adria Universität,
Klagenfurt, Austria.
Anderson, J. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its

implications (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.
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Teaching and Researching Language Learning

Rebecca L. Oxford is Professor Emerita and Distinguished Scholar-Teacher at the University

A Note about the Cover Photo from the Author:

1 Bringing Order out of Chaos: Definitions and Features of Language

2 The Soul of L2 Learning Strategies: Self-Regulation, Agency,

3 Context, Complexity, and Learning Strategies: Recognizing the

4 Strategy Role Flexibility, Denial of Dualisms, and Metastrategies in

5 The Multiple Self: Self-Regulation Strategies for Cognitive,

7 Strategies for L2 Grammar and Vocabulary in Context 243

8 Strategies for L2 Reading and Writing in Context 272

9 Strategies for Listening, Phonology, Pronunciation, Speaking/Oral

10 Innovations (and Potential Innovations) in Strategy Instruction,

Postscript: Brief Summary of the Strategic Self-Regulation (S2R)

Appendix A: Definitions of and Comments about Second Language, Foreign

1.1 The Forms of Strategies Identified in the Definitions, Indicating Mental

1.1 The Data: Definitions of “Language Learning Strategies,” “Learner Strategies,”

Who Are This Book’s Readers?

Goal 1. Take Strong Leadership on Strategy Definitions

Goal 3: Emphasize Context

Goal 4: Interweave Strategies, Context, and Complexity Theory

Goal 5: Look at Strategies in New Ways

How Is This Book Organized?

How Can This Book Be Used?

1 Bringing Order out of Chaos:

Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P., & Paris, S. (2008). Clarifying

Amerstorfer, C. (2015, Oct.). [Convener] Situating strategy

Amerstorfer, C. (2016). Situated strategy use in a

Anderson, J. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its

Anderson, N.J. (1991, Winter). Individual differences in

Anderson, N.J. (2008). Metacognition and the good language

Bakhtin, M.M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four

Bakhtin, M.M. (1984). Problems of Dostoevsky’s poetics. Ed.

Bialystok, E. (1978). Language skills and the learner: The

Chamot, A.U. (1987). The learning strategies of ESL

Chamot, A.U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P., & Robbins, J.

Chamot, A., & Harris, V. (2017). Learning strategy

Chamot, A.U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in

Chamot, A.U., Küpper, L., & Impink-Hernandez, M.V. (1988).

Chen, Y. (2005). Barriers to acquiring listening strategies

Chi, M.T.H., Glaser, R., & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in

Cohen, A.D. (1996). Second language learning and use

Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a

Cohen, A.D. (2007). Coming to terms with language learner

Cohen, A.D. (2011). Strategies in learning and using a

Cohen, A.D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a

Cohen, A.D. (2017). Language learning strategies: a

Cohen, A.D., & Ishihara, N. (2005). A web-based approach to

Cohen, A.D., & Macaro, E. (Eds.). (2007). Language learner

Cohen, A.D., & Olshtain, E. (1993). The production of

Cohen, A.D., & Weaver, S. (2006). Styles and

Coughlan, P., & Duff, P. (1994). Same task, different

DeCorte, E., Verschaffel, L., & Op ’t Eynde, P. (2000).

Dembo, M., & Seli, H. (2014). Motivation and learning

Donato, R., & McCormick, D.E. (1994). A socio-cultural

Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner:

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The psychology of second language

Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P., & Henry, A. (Eds.) (2015).

Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the

Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in

Ehrman, M.E., & Leaver, B.L. (2005). E & L questionnaire.

Ehrman, M.E., Leaver, B.L., & Oxford, R.L. (2003). A brief

Ellis, R. (1991). Instructed second language acquisition:

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition.