OFFICIAL SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES

UNIT 11

DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS:

STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition of Text

2. TEXT AND CONTEXT

3. PRINCIPLES OF A DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

3.1. Regulative
3.2. Constitutive

4. COHESION AND COHERENCE

4.1. Register
4.2. Cohesive Devices

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS

5.1. Setting
5.2. Characters
5.3. Mood

6. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS

7. EXTRA ELEMENTS OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS

7.1. Patterns
7.2. Words Used

8. CONCLUSION
1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit we are going to look at descriptive texts. Within this area we are going to
include an examination of the constituents of texts in general so that we can see the
principles that will be included in any type of description. This will involve an
examination of the meaning of the word text and the cohesive devices that go into
providing a text with coherence.

The information will be taken from Halliday and Hasan, Ramon Seldon and The
Penguin Guide to Literature.

We will begin by looking at the meaning of the word text in general, so that we can see
the foundation of descriptive texts.

1.1. Definition of Text.

Basically, a text can be taken to mean a stretch of language that can form the process of
communication. This can be made either through a linear pattern of sound waves,
otherwise known as speech, or a linear sequence of marks on paper, or writing. This
communication must make coherent sense in the context of its use. The linguistic form
is important, but it is not in itself sufficient to give a stretch of language the status of a
text. For example, a road sign reading No Overtaking is an adequate text, though
comprising only a short noun phrase. It is understood as a statement, paraphraseable as
something like: it is dangerous to overtake here. By contrast, the same sign placed out
of context, for example in a supermarket, is not an adequate text because although we
can recognise the structure and understand the words, the phrase can communicate
nothing to us as we pass by, and is therefore meaningless. This is the key to
understanding the text. In order for the communication to work, it has to be placed in
context. This is as true for descriptive texts as it is for any other type.

We will now look at text and context in connection with descriptive texts in greater
detail.

2. TEXT AND CONTEXT

Text is all about meanings. However, for those meanings to have any value, they need
to be received by someone who understands them. Look at the following diagram:

ADDRESSER ADDRESSEE

sender receiver

MESSAGE MESSAGE

encode TEXT decode

(CONTEXT)
From this diagram we can see that in order for the communication to be successful, the
message which is received by the addressee has to be identical to that which is sent by
the addresser. However, this in itself is no guarantee of success, the sender should also
take care over how he sends the message. It should, in the words of Grice, be:

TRUE, BRIEF, RELEVANT, CLEAR

Not only that, but the text has to be received within its correct context if it is to be
understood properly. The communication is only conceptually successful if it is
conceptually relevant. In a decriptive text, the receiver has to be aware of all the
relevant facts surrounding the description - if he isn’t, the decription will fail. This is
where the context plays a major role.

The Context of the descriptive text takes into account the intention of meaning and how
that intention is to be interpreted by someone. This is deeply affected by the
environment in which the message is sent, as well as the previous or assumed
knowledge of the receiver. This sharing of knowledge by the participants is known as
the implicit context.

The explicit context refers solely to the message itself, and not to any external
elements.

In a descriptive text, the implicit context is often irrelevant; the fact that something is
being described suggests that one of the parties does not have any previous knowledge
of the item.

Now that we have seen how the text can be made clear through the context, we will
move onto the principles that are also needed to complete a descriptive text.

3. PRINCIPLES OF A DESCRIPTIVE TEXT.

A descriptive text, like any other type of text, can be divided into two different
categories of principles: Regulative and Constitutive. We will begin with the
regulative:

3.1. Regulative Principles:

This takes into account three areas:

The efficiency of the text.

The effectiveness of the text.
The appropriacy of the text.

The efficiency determines whether or not a satisfactory result can be achieved by the
participants through the least effort. This means that the communicants should be able
to reach a mutual understanding without having to make huge efforts in order to
negotiate meaning. If this happens then the text can be said to be effective, in other
words, the intended result has been produced. However, there has to be some kind of
suitability or correspondance between the text and the context. If this is so, then the
appropriateness of the text is adequate.

3.2. Constitutive Principles:

This can be divided into the following sections:

Situationality:

The text has to be relevant to a speech event. In other words, that which is said has to
have meaning within the context, as can be seen in the earlier example of the road sign.

Informativity:

The information has to be either expected or needed to a certain extent. If the

information that is provided is pointless or unneeded, then the decription is unlikely to
succeed.

Intertextuality:

One text can often be dependent on the receiver’s knowledge of other texts, for example
when a film is in two parts, or when the understanding of a situation relies on the
receiver having heard an extra part of the description.

Intentionality:

This is related to the speaker’s conscious effort towards the purpose of the
communication. The speaker tries all that he can to ensure that the message that is
received is the one that he intended to send.

Acceptability:

For the text to be acceptable it has to be cohesive and coherent. We will look at this last
point in greater detail.

4. COHESION AND COHERENCE

In order to achieve coherence, or clarity, in descriptive or any kind of text, we have to

pay attention to the cohesive devices that are used to hold the text together as a whole.
According to Halliday and Hasan, cohesion is the combination of register, or how we
speak, and a variety of devices that go together to make a text coherent. We will
examine these devices, also known as cohesive ties, in greater detail in a moment, but
first let’s look at register.

4.1. Register

The way that we speak can say a lot about us as people. Our accent and our choice of
words can have a profound effect upon those with whom we are in contact. Generally
speaking, an accent from the upper classes will be considered as superior to some of the
northern accents, and anyone with an R.P. accent will be considered educated and so
will be treated with some respect.
Register can be divided into two classes, open and closed.

Open register is where we have the freedom to use words that we wish to use. This can
be seen in day-to day conversation. Even here, truly open register is hard to find, as
there are rules and conventions that dictate what we have to say in certain situations. In
the descriptive text the register is rarely open, as the person doing the describing is
limited by the charactersitics of the object he wishes to portray.

Closed Register is, as the name suggests, more restricted. For an example of closed
register think about the language used by pilots when flying. They can only use the
words that are necessary. This can be applied to the descriptive text when we think
about instruction manuals, where the language only relates to the relevant information.

From the area of register, we will now move on to looking at some of the cohesive
devices that also go into making a descriptive text coherent.

4.2. Cohesive Devices

There are five major cohesive ties: lexis, reference, substitution, ellipsis and
conjunction.

Lexis:

This refers to the way that words are used throughout the text to provide cohesion. This
can be done through the repetition of a word;

He went into a room. It was a dark room with only a small window.

or this can also be done throught the use of synonyms;

He was angry. More furious that he could remember having been before.

Reference:

This area uses anaphora and cataphora to refer to words that are mentioned somewhere
else in the text.

Anaphora refers back to something that has been mentioned before:

Ian walked into the party. He was wearing a dark blue suit and a sad expression.

Cataphora is when a cohesive tie points ahead to somehing that has not yet been
mentioned.

There was one part of his outfit that didn’t match, the shoes were blue.

Substitution :

This is a way of referring to a class of items, rather than something more specific, as is
the case with reference:
 Did you find the blankets?
Only the blue ones.

In this example we can see that ones refers not to the blankets alone, but to a class of
blankets that are blue.

Ellipsis:

Here, we refer to omissions. The omission is clarified by the context or by the previous
information:

Was it hot in England?

No, it wasn’t.

The short answer is sufficient because the context makes it clear that the one responding
is referring to the temperature.

Conjunctions:

These are used as a means of helping the listener or the reader to be able to interpret the
relationship between the clauses. This basically means that the clauses are tied together:

He stared across the bay, and as he looked, he saw the lights of a ship out at sea.

These are some of the devices that go together to give a descriptive text meaning. These
devices can be found in all types of texts, not just descriptive. With this in mind we will
move onto looking at the various charcteristics that we can find as being unique to
descriptive texts.

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS

One thing that has to be taken into consideration when discussing descriptive texts is
their relationship to other types. This is because it is unusual to find a description that
stands alone. Instead it is more commonly found as a part of other texts, for example,
the narrative. If we think of a novel, for example, we find that in order to convey a
setting, a character or a mood, some form of description is involved. This essentially is
the purpose of a descriptive text.

We will begin by looking at some of the ways that a descriptive text can be used to set

the scene.

5.1. Setting

A descriptive text may be said to have the qualities of a portrait, only instead of using
paint it uses words. Through the use of adjectives a descriptive text can paint an image
in the mind of the receiver of the message that conjures up a visual expression of that
which the author wishes to convey. In the case of an outdoor or indoor setting this may
take the form of describing the actual scene:
In the park there were trees and flowers of all kinds.
This can then be supplemented by the addition of colour:

The green grass complemented the yellow and brown leaves of autumn.

And a spatial aspect may be added:

In the distance, at the bottom of the hill, the town could be seen.

These desriptions help to fix the setting in the mind of the reader. The significant details
have been added, but the author can do more. It is possible to go into detail about the
scene from an aspect that appeals to other senses than the visual, such as by the addition
of smells, sounds, temperature, etc:

The aroma of the roses and the noise of the birds helped to make it a perfect, warm
October morning.

If we place these examples together the reader can receive the impression of a park in
autumn and all the pleasant sensations that accompany the scene.

5.2. Characters.

Within this scene a character can be introduced. The author has the choice over how he
presents this person, and how he relates to the surroundings. The main point is that
whatever description is given, the reader can ascertain as to the character’s appearance
and role within the scene, and, hopefully, his interest will be aroused:

Sitting under one of the tall trees was a young man.

In the above example the character has been given a position within the scene. The other
information that we have about him is that he is male and young. This is the basis of the
description. The author may now wish to continue adding details until a complete
mental image is produced. He may wish to add to his appearance, such as the clothes he
is wearing, his facial characteristics and any other aspect of the character that may be
considered of importance:

He stretched his long legs out on the grass. Removing his large black coat he ran his
hands through his blond hair. His sharp blue eyes took in his surroundings.There was
blood on his face.

5.3. Mood

This description tells us a lot more about the character, not least of all that he has
received some kind of an injury. Now the author may wish to refer to the psychological
condition of the young man, in order that we may have an insight into the workings of
his mind:

He was scared. He hadn’t meant to hurt the girl, but now he was running away from the
police, injured, hungry and with nowhere to go.

If we place these three together, as often happens in texts, we see that the description
has not only set the scene, but it has also introduced the plot.
This type of description has been subjective on the part of the writer. However, not all
descriptions correspond to art. Technical or scientific matters can also require
describing, and here the description is far more objective. This will form the basis for
the next part of this unit.

6. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS.

In the examples that we gave in the last section we could see the way that the author
portrayed a sense of vividness in the scene. There was a representation of things as he
wished the reader to see them, but these items were, in all probability, a figment of his
imagination. In order to express his intentions the author has appealed to our senses.

An objective description on the other hand can be said to deal with facts, either internal
or external to the author. It may be argued that as we are all influenced by our emotions
it may be difficult to present a truly objective description, but as the main aim of
objective (otherwise known as technical) descriptions is to provide information related
to factual things we can say that they are more in touch with reality and impartiality
than the subjective variety.

As an example of an objective description we may take the following example:

The new Audi comes fitted with lateral airbags and ABS brakes, making it one of the
safest cars on the road.

This advertisement contains a clear mixture of fact and subjectivity. The claim
however, that it is one of the safest cars on the road, although subjective in appearance,
is based on evidence.

Another example may be from a guidebook:

The house was built in 1750. The roof is thatched and there are wooden beams in all
the rooms. It is a fine example of construction from the period.

It may also be said that a letter is an objective descriptive text, at least in part. When we
write to someone we tell them the things that we have been doing. lt may be that
included within this description we mention our thoughts and our feelings, but the basis
is factual:

Dear all;
Having a wonderful time.
The hotel is great.
See you soon,
John.

As we have seen, description can have a variety of forms and a variety of uses. We will
continue this unit by looking at some of the other ways that description can be used in
texts.
7. EXTRA ELEMENTS OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS

The setting of the seene that we described earlier is perhaps one of the most common
forms of description. However, this can be expanded on. It is not only the physical
charactersitics of a setting that are important to us. The author may wish the reader to be
aware of other factors. The problem that he faces is in the choice of the details that are
to be presented. This choice is normally made according to the item which he wishes to
have the dominant impression.The topography will capture the whole scene, whereas
extra details can be added through the mood or the characters. However, there are times
when the author has to take other factors into account, such as the period of the setting.
In this case he may wish to add details about the surroundings, the way people lived etc.
that relay to the reader information about a time that the reader has no knowledge of:

The dirty, wooden buildings led to the Thames down streets characterised by thc stench
of the open sewers.

In this description we are given an image of the squalor in 18th century London.

In addition to this the writer will take into acount various patterns of description:

7.1. Patterns of description

We can divide the patterns of descriptive texts up into the following categories:
Pictoric, Topographic, Cinematographic.

Pictoric:

Here we have to think about a photograph. Nothing is moving. The writer will describe
the scene but in terms of colour and light, for example:

The silver and black trees appeared as black outlines against the sky.

Topographic:

Here, the writer is moving past an object that is stationary such as the description of the
view from the train:

The cities flashed past in a blur as we raced towards London.

Cinematographic:

Here it is the writer who is stationary whilst the object is in motion:

The car raced past, red blue with silver stripes.

The one thing that we can notice in these examples is that the majority of the words
used to make the descriptions are adjectives. However, this does not always have to be
the case. We will now look at some of the other vocabulary that is at the author’s
disposal.
7.2. Words used in Descriptive Texts.

We have already mentioned how adjectives can be used in descriptive texts. Clearly
their very nature makes them the most important means of expression, but there are
other ways of creating an effect. For example, it is possible to use nouns and verbs to
make a description of a scene:

The girls were laughing.

He played the guitar wildly.

In addition to this, we can find certain rhetorical devices within the text, such as
metaphor, simile, repetition, synonymy, etc. examples of which include:

Metaphor:

The heart’s flower dies at the root.

Simile:

The sun was like a big orange ball in the sky.

Repetition.

It was a cold day. Cold, cold, cold.

Synonymy:

He was angry, furious in fact.

8. CONCLUSION

In this unit we have seen the ways that texts are formed and held together to make a
cohesive unit. The descriptive text, which mainly forms a part or other text types, is no
exception to the maxim of True, Brief, Relevant and Clear. The vocabulary that is
used within the text can be poetic or functional, depending on the wishes of the author.
The point is that the students should have as much exposure to the forms as possible in
order for them to become familiar with the use of this important element of
communication.
UNIT 11 DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS

THEMES NOTES

Text: A stretch of language that forms a process of

communication. The
linguistic form is important, but the message must be placed in
context if it is to be understood. For example; no overtaking would
have little meaning if it were placed away from a road.
Text and Context: For messages to have any value, they must be
received by someone who understands them in context. To follow
Grice, the message must be: True, Brief, Relevant and Clear.
The context of a descriptive text takes into account the describer’s
intention. The Implicit Context refers to the sharing of knowledge.
Explicit Context uses no external elements: it refers solely to the
message itself.
Principles of Texts: A text can be divided into two different
categories of principles: Regulative and Constitutive. The
regulative principle refers to efficiency, effectiveness and
appropriacy.Constitutive: This refers to situationality,
informativity, intertextuality, intentionality acceptability.
Cohesion and Coherence: In order to achieve cohesion, or clarity,
we have to pay attention to the cohesive devices that are used. With
register the accent and choice of words affect the people who we
are speaking to. Open Register gives us freedom of choice as to
the amount of creativity that we use. Closed Register is very
restricted, such as can be found in air travel. Cohesive devices
include lexis, which refers to the way words are used in a text to
provide cohesion, reference refers back or forward to something
and includes anaphora and cataphora, substitution is when one
word is used to substitute another, the idea being that repetitions
are avoided, ellipsis is when a part of the sentence is cut, the
meaning being made clear through the context. In conjunction
clauses are tied together with words such as and.
Characteristics of Descriptive Texts: It is unusual for them to
stand alone. Normally they are part of narrative texts. The Setting
paints a visual image. As far as the characters are concerned, we
have to think about their appearance and role.The mood tells us
about characters’ mind.
Objective and Subjective Descriptions: Objective descriptions
deal with facts, either internal or external to the author. The
objective text is more in touch with reality. Patterns of
Description: Pictoric: Nothing moves. Topographic: Writer
moves past stationary object. Cinematographic: Writer stationary,
object moves.
Words used in Descriptive Texts. Adjectives, nouns, verbs. We
can also find devices such as Metaphor: The heart’s flower dies at
the root. Simile: The sun was like a big orange ball in the sky.
Repetition: It was a cold day. Cold, cold, cold. Synonymy: He was
angry, furious in fact.

Now test your knowledge of unit 11 by answering the following questions:

1. What are the main characteristics of descriptive texts?

2. Name some differences between subjective and objective descriptions.

3. Apart from the physical characteristics of a setting, what is important in description?

4. Name three patterns of description.

5. What are the most common words and devices used in descriptive texts?