Agroforest Syst

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00510-9 (0123456789().,-volV)
( 01234567
89().,-volV)

Cocoa-based agroforestry system dynamics and trends

in the Akongo subregion of central Cameroon
François Manga Essouma . Isabelle Michel . William A. Mala .
Patrice Levang . Zachée Ambang . Aimé D. Begoude Boyogueno .
Charlotte Moisy . Françoise Ngono . Stéphanie M. Carriere

Received: 4 September 2017 / Accepted: 25 May 2020

Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2020

Abstract Cocoa is a major crop and income source
for most farmers and rural households in the Centre,
South and South-West regions of Cameroon, where
cocoa is generally produced in agroforestry systems.
In this country, cocoa-based agroforestry systems
(CBAFS) are undergoing multiple changes alongside
the rapid changes underway in the natural, economic
and socio-political conditions. This study—carried out
in the Akongo subregion in central Cameroon—was
designed to gain insight into the CBAFS trends and
dynamics in the light of those multiple changes. This
semi-structured socioeconomic survey involved inter-
views and direct observations at plot, farm, household
and village scales. Overall, forty cocoa growers from
ten villages were interviewed and then fifteen cocoa
plots were characterized on the basis of the survey
findings. They revealed that cocoa was the major crop
in this study area, with cocoa plantations occupying
three quarters of the total farming area. Three types of
CBAFS were identified, which differed according to
their vegetation structure, management practices and
age of the plantations. Dynamics affecting the struc-
tural characteristics and the spatial extension of these
systems emerged and were intimately linked to the
dynamics of the cocoa farmer population in relation to
their context.
Keywords Theobroma cacao L.  Management
practices  Vegetation structure  Tree species 
Typology

F. Manga Essouma  A. D. Begoude Boyogueno

Scientific Coordination for Perennial Crops, Institut de I. Michel  C. Moisy
Recherche Agricole pour le Développement (IRAD), UMR INNOVATION, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro,
P.O. Box. 2067, Yaoundé, Cameroon Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France

F. Manga Essouma  W. A. Mala  Z. Ambang  P. Levang  S. M. Carriere

F. Ngono UMR GRED –IRD-UPVM, Université Paul-Valéry, Site
Department of Plant Biology, University of Yaoundé I, St Charles, Route de Mende,
P.O. Box 337, Yaoundé, Cameroon 34199 Montpellier Cedex 05, France

F. Manga Essouma (&) P. Levang

Yaoundé, Cameroon Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),
e-mail: essouma2003@yahoo.fr P.O. Box 2008, Messa, Yaoundé, Cameroon

123

Introduction
In Cameroon, the cocoa sector accounts for approx-
imately 2% of the national GDP, 6% of the primary
GDP, 30% of the GDP derived from the agricultural
products for export and processing subsector, and 28%
from non-oil exports (Abena 2006). Cocoa is also a
major cash crop and income source for most farmers
and rural households in the Centre, South and South-
West regions of Cameroon, with cocoa mainly being
produced in agroforestry systems. These cocoa-based
agroforestry systems (CBAFS) also have an important
role in ecosystem service provision, in- and ex situ
biodiversity and soil conservation (Dury et al. 2000;
Sonwa 2004; Jagoret et al. 2009, 2015; Smith Dumont
et al. 2014; Sonwa et al. 2014; Dollinger and Jose
2018), as well as in carbon sequestration (Nijmeijer
et al. 2018). These multi-strata CBAFS offer a diverse
range of products and services (Sonwa et al. 2016).
Rural communities clearly give preference to these
systems over monocultures (Texeira 1999; Yamada
and Gholz 2002; Gockowski et al. 2010; Obiri et al.
2007). However, cocoa agroforestry systems are
undergoing marked changes in response to changes
under way in natural conditions (e.g. deforestation and
climate changes), social conditions (e.g. increased
land competition, scarcity of natural resources and
immigration), economic conditions (e.g. international
markets, arrival of new investors [urban elite or
foreign companies] and new market openings) and
socio-political conditions (e.g. new land acquisition
and resource management regulations, as well as the
extension of protected areas) (Sakanashi 2011; Nunoo
et al. 2014). The upshot of these various changes is that
the area under forest cover in Cameroon has decreased
from 22.5 to 19.6 million ha over the past 25 years,
representing around 41.3% of the present national area
(Verhegghen and Defourny 2010). Moreover, State
support for the cocoa sector has declined drastically
since the 1990 crisis. Liberalisation of the sector has
had substantial impacts on cocoa farm management, as
well as on the quantity and quality of the cocoa
produced in Cameroon (Duguma et al. 2001; Alary
1996). This new deal led to key changes in CBAFS
management and the vegetation structure (Michel
et al. 2019). The present study aimed to gain insight
into the CBAFS dynamics and trends in the light of the
changes in the natural, social, economic and socio-
political conditions under way in Cameroon. This
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study enabled: (1) assessment of the socioeconomic
importance of cocoa in the Akongo village area; (2)
characterization of CBAFS, and (3) determination of
the system dynamics and trends.
Materials and methods
Study site
This multiscale study encompassed the village area,
the household and farming unit, the cocoa farm and
homogeneous cocoa plantations. The study was con-
ducted in the Centre Region, i.e. in the Akongo
subregion (3° 220 6000 N and 11° 40 6000 E) (ORSTOM
1965) (Fig. 1). Akongo village (& 1300 inhabitants)
is located at 624 m elevation. Permanent and/or
temporary crops were grown on the farmlands and
managed by the household head, supported by family
members. Cocoa was produced in different ways,
associated or not with other crops. This highly varied
situation warranted a farming system analysis to
distinguish the cocoa production variability in the
area.
Data collection
Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected
from May to August 2013. Three different methods
were used for data collection: (1) interviews of
resource people on the history of cocoa growing and
changes in technical patterns since its beginning in
Akongo; (2) semi-structured socioeconomic surveys
with households, and (3) direct observations and
measurements in cocoa plantations. Six persons were
selected to provide general social, political and
economic context information on the basis of their
status in the community, as well as their technical and
social knowledge (village head, divisional agriculture
delegate, community leaders, etc.). A total of forty
cocoa growers, including at least four growers per
village from ten villages around Akongo, were
selected for the semi-structured socioeconomic inter-
views. These were focused on life history, income
activities, cultivated crops, cocoa plantation charac-
teristics (plantation status, age, history since its initial
planting, area, distance from house, management
practices, cocoa tree ages, cocoa production, etc.)
and plans to extend or not cocoa plantations.
Agroforest Syst
Fig. 1 Map of farm and residence location
Following these interviews with the cocoa growers,
field visits to plantations were organised in fifteen
cocoa farms, where an in-depth assessment was
conducted to select one cocoa plot per farm, inside
which a 2500 m2 subplot was selected for specific
characterization. In each of the fifteen subplots, all
individual trees associated with cocoa trees were
counted and the following information was collected:
species name (Vivien and Faure 1985), height, living
or cut, traditional uses (food, fuelwood, timber, crafts,
medicinal, edible caterpillar host), ecological services
(e.g. soil fertility, humidity, shade). The tree heights
were measured using a clisimeter. We defined three
strata: (1) the cocoa stratum (0 to 8 m high); (2) the
intermediate stratum (8 to 25 m high) with many fruit
trees; and (3) the high stratum (from 25 to more than
60 m) with many forest trees. Each stratum was
characterized by the number of measured trees and
species. A second 1000 m2 subplot, which was
included in the first subplot, served to record
information on all cocoa trees (number, height, variety
name, pruned or not) (Fig. 2).
Data analysis
As endogeneity and sample selection are major
concerns with regard to non-experimental data
(Richardson et al. 2009), a statistical analysis of the
data collected from the different sources was con-
ducted according to the generalized linear model
(GLM) procedure involving linear regression analysis
and variance analysis (ANOVA) methods. Descriptive
statistics (percentage of each category of variable)
were also used to assess the socioeconomic and other
factors involved in the farming system structure, as
described by Jagoret et al. (2008). To highlight the
dynamics of the CBAFS, we proposed a classification
based on the age and the technical history of the
plantations, according to the farmer interviews and the
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 Agroforest Syst

farmland area. The overall average annual production

amounted to 732.6 kg of cocoa beans per household
(range 160-2000 kg), which represented an average of
206.7 kg/ha of cocoa beans (Fig. 5).

Characterization of cocoa-based agroforestry

systems

Spatial distribution
Fig. 2 Delimitation inside each monitored CBAFS (cocoa-
based agroforestry system) plot of a first 2,500 m2 subplot to Most cocoa plantations were located 3-5 km from the
record information on associated trees, and a second 1,000 m2
farmers’ houses. A smaller proportion were located in
the vicinity (behind) of the houses. In the village of
direct observations of cocoa plots. Particular attention
Akongo-centre (including Akongo I, II, III and
was paid to the density per hectare of cocoa trees and
Abang), all cocoa plantations were located in the
associated living trees and their changes over time.
Bikoe forest, 4-6 km from the main road. During
ANOVA was performed to compare the characteris-
weeding periods when phytosanitary treatments and
tics of the thus defined types of CBAFS. The Newman-
cocoa beans harvest are performed, all actors involved
Keuls test was used when a significant difference was
(growers, their family and/or employees) preferred to
highlighted by the Fisher test (at p \ 5%). Other
live for several days or weeks in the forest near their
correlation models, including scatter plots and princi-
cocoa stands. This strategy allowed them not to waste
pal components analysis (PCA), were also used to
precious time and energy on travelling to and from the
assess links between variables (on associated and
sometimes distant fields, which could in turn reduce
cocoa trees, growers and farm characteristics) for
the time they would be able to spend working in their
CBAFS classification, factors associated with CBAFS
fields and lead to the abandonment of certain planta-
characteristics and dynamics. All statistical analyses
tions by farmers.
were performed using XLSTAT (Addinsoft,
XLSTAT, 2014).
Status and age

Many of the CBAFS monitored in the study area were

Results
cultivated and managed in very traditional ways
resembling the approaches implemented previously
Cocoa-based farming systems

Cocoa was found to be the main income source for the

majority of households sampled. It was the primary
crop for 82.5% of the households, compared to 10%
for food crops, 5% for vegetables (chilli pepper) and
2.5% for oil palm (Fig. 3). Income obtained from the
sale of cocoa helped meet many household needs.
Based on the results, 40% of this income was used for
children’s education, 35% for improving housing
conditions (permanent buildings, electricity genera-
tors, household electrical appliances, etc.), 12% for
health care and nutrition and 5% for petty trade or debt
reimbursement (Fig. 4). Among the surveyed house-
holds, sole cocoa stands covered an average of 3.65 ha
out of the 5.5 ha per household of cultivated farmland.
Fig. 3 Contribution of the different crops to the incomes of the
Sole cocoa stands accounted for 75% of the total
40 households surveyed, Akongo, central Cameroon

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Agroforest Syst

Fig. 4 Use of income from the sale of cocoa by the 40 households surveyed, Akongo, central Cameroon

Fig. 5 Areas and annual production of cocoa beans per households, Akongo, central Cameroon (40 households surveyed)

by the elders. Among the households surveyed, 17.5%
of the cocoa plantations had been established by the
current owners, 82.5% had been established by
grandparents or parents of the current owners,
inherited (72.5%) or entrusted pending inheritance
(10%). Those cocoa plantations had been established
from food-crop fields (90%) or forest areas (10%). The
mean cocoa plantation age was 48.8 years, which
means that there was a low renewal of these planta-
tions in Akongo. Cocoa yields were low, i.e. 100% of
the cocoa plantations yielded less than 1 t/ha of cocoa
beans. It should be noted that 99% of the monitored
plantations were planted with the Amelonado variety,
which the farmers call ‘‘German cocoa’’.
Typology
We defined three types of CBAFS (Table 1 and Fig. 6):
(1) Young Unmodified CBAFS (YUCBAFS) from 5 to
29 years old; (2) Old Unmodified CBAFS

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(OUCBAFS) from 30 to 100 years old; and (3) Old
Modified CBAFS (OMCBAFS) from 42 to 64 years
old. The PCA (Fig. 6) findings revealed differences
between the three types of CBAFS according to the:
farmer’s age, plantation area (ha), plantation age
(years), per-ha cocoa yield, Amelonado variety (%),
hybrid cocoa variety (%), number of pruned cocoa
trees (%), per-ha cocoa tree density, per-ha associated
living tree density, per-ha associated tree stump
density, mean height of trees in the intermediate
stratum (m), mean height of trees in the high stratum
(m), per-ha number of associated living tree species,
number of associated trees in the intermediate stratum
(percentage), number of associated trees in the high
stratum (percentage), number of associated trees in the
cocoa stratum (percentage), per-ha number of edible
trees, per-ha number of fuelwood trees, per-ha number
of timber trees, per-ha number of handicraft trees, per-
ha number of medicinal trees, per-ha number of edible
caterpillar host trees, per-ha number of soil fertility
enhancement trees, and per-ha number of soil humid-
ity enhancement trees. Specifically, the most impor-
tant variables were the plantation age, per-ha density
of associated living trees, per-ha cocoa tree density,
number of associated trees in the high stratum
(percentage), per-ha number of edible caterpillar host
trees and per-ha number of timber trees. This analysis
revealed a close correlation between the plantation age
and the number of associated trees in the high stratum,
as opposed to the cocoa tree density, thus making it
possible to distinguish OMCBAFS and OUCBAFS
Table 1 ANOVA results and mean values for 7 variables for the three types of CBAFS (cocoabased agroforestry system) defined,
Akongo, central Cameroon (15 plots)
Variables Types of CBAFS
OMCBAFS (5)
Mean plantation age (years) 53.4 ± 9.9a
-1
Associated living tree density trees ha 39.2 ± 23.9
Coca tree density trees ha-1 1232 ± 317.3a
Cocoa yields kg ha-1 191.8 ± 77.5a
Number of associated tree species ha-1 7.4 ± 3.2a
Associated fruit tree density trees ha-1 4 ± 4b
-1
Associated wood tree density trees ha 35.2 ± 21.6
(): number of plots; OMCBAFS: Old Modified CABFS; OUCBAFS: Old unmodified CBAFS; YUCBAFS: Young unmodified
CBAFS
Values in the same line with the same letters are not significantly different at p \ 0.05
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Agroforest Syst
from YUCBAFS plantations. Furthermore, OMC-
BAFS plots were related to the Amelonado variety,
pruned cocoa trees and associated tree stumps; in
contrast, OUCBAFS plots were related to the associ-
ated tree density, number of associated tree species
and species diversity (timber, medicinal, handicrafts,
fuelwood, edible caterpillar host trees). Finally,
YUCBAFS plots were related to the associated tree
density, in the intermediate and cocoa strata, and the
hybrid cocoa variety.
Table 1 shows the three types of CBAFS according
to six variables related to the above-mentioned
characteristics. The OUCBAFS and YUCBAFS types
were found to be similar in terms of the associated
living tree density, whose values were significantly
higher than that of the OMCBAFS type. Similarly, the
number of associated tree species was significantly
greater in the OUCBAFS and YUCBAFS types than in
the OMCBAFS type. Fruit trees were less present than
woody trees in all types of CBAFS. The cocoa tree
density decreased with the plantation age, as shown by
the significantly lower values obtained for the
OMCBAFS and OUCBAFS types compared to the
YUCBAFS type. However, the growers tended to
increase the cocoa tree density when they reduced the
associated living tree density, as shown by the
comparison of OUCBAFS and OMCBAFS types.
Cocoa yields were generally very low in all types of
CBAFS (206.9 kg/ha of cocoa beans), with no
significant difference, but tended to be slightly higher
in OUCBAFS than in YUCBAFS or OMCBAFS.
OUCBAFS (5) YUCBAFS (5) Overall
50.4 ± 4.0a 15.4 ± 8.9b 39.7 ± 19.4
b a
150.4 ± 44.6 135.2 ± 42.7a 109.9 ± 63.5
1032 ± 354.7a 2682 ± 1266.8b 1648.7 ± 1049.9
292.9 ± 352.84a 135.9 ± 63a 206.9 ± 207.3
16.6 ± 4.3b 16.6 ± 2.9b 13.5 ± 5.5
38.4 ± 21.3a 35.2 ± 21.6a 25.9 ± 22.9
b a
112 ± 43.5 100 ± 44.8a 82.4 ± 49.7
Agroforest Syst
Fig. 6 Graphs of variables correlation with PCA and scatter of the 15 CBAFS (cocoa-based agroforestry system) plots of the sample,
according to the three types defined
OUCBAFS and YUCBAFS plantations could be
grouped into a single type of CBAFS, characterized by
a complex structure, but with stands of different ages.
These agroforestry systems were mainly initiated on
mixed food-crop fields established after selective
felling and burning of forest trees, by broadcast
seeding of cocoa beans (for OUCBAFS) or by planting
young cocoa trees raised in nurseries (for YUCBAFS).
These plantations thus developed into multi-strata
agroforests dominated by cocoa trees, with a high
density of associated living trees (forest trees initially
preserved or re-grown) and some introduced fruit trees
(Table 1). Once yearly weed clearing around the cocoa
trees, cutting of big associated trees and antifungal
spraying were generally the only maintenance oper-
ations carried out by farmers in their cocoa planta-
tions. However, hybrid cocoa tree varieties were more
represented in YUCBAFS plantations.
OMCBAFS plantations corresponded to CBAFS
with a simple structure, characterized by a low
associated tree density. Technical interventions con-
sisted of one or two annual weed clearings, some
treatments (fungicides and pesticides), and shade
management. Shade management was carried out by
cutting down or killing the biggest associated trees
which could destroy the cocoa layer when they fall (by
girdling or fire). Growers could replace fallen trees
(after they die or during a storm), physically or pest
damaged cocoa trees (especially after major pest
infestations that kill many cocoa trees) by young cocoa
trees or rejuvenate the stand by coppicing.
Cocoa plantation dynamics and extension
CBAFS were influenced by a number of factors
(economic, social, ecological, pedoclimatic, etc.)
which were often responsible for multiple trajectories
and spatial dynamics. This could explain the appear-
ance or disappearance of some types of CBAFS, as
well as the extension of cocoa plantations in new
areas. No ‘‘newly-cleared land’’ or ‘‘cocoa-intensive’’
areas were observed in our study area. Farmers from
all villages applied almost the same traditional tech-
niques. Cocoa was the dominant crop and the area
under cocoa may further increase in the coming years
to the detriment of food crops, given its outstanding
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contribution to the household income. Contrary to past
trends, nowadays cocoa plantation areas extend less
into forests but more onto farmland (food crop fields).
Among the households surveyed, the percentage of
inherited cocoa plantations (72.5%) showed that the
temporal dynamics were strongly in favour of aging
cocoa plantations. Otherwise, the existence of planta-
tions that were less than 10 years old indicated
relatively active spatial dynamics. The cocoa planta-
tion expansion was planned by 55% of our respon-
dents, while only 5% favoured plantation
improvement. Among the households surveyed, cul-
tivated farmland covered an average of 5.5 ha out of
the 16.3 ha land ownership per household, which
means that cocoa farmers in the study area still had
untapped or fallow arable lands. This seemed to
indicate strong spatial dynamics towards an increase
in the cocoa plantation area to the detriment of food
crop fields and forests in the coming years. These
results corroborate forecasts on future cocoa dynamics
in the region. Meanwhile, 60% of the respondents
considered that the cocoa sector of Akongo was
expanding, compared to 25% who thought that it had
stagnated, while 15% felt that it was in regression.
Concerning the trajectories of ageing CBAFS, while
the cocoa tree density decreased, there was an increase
in the associated tree density. YUCBAFS type plan-
tations thus naturally developed into OUCBAFS type
plantations over time (Table 1, Fig. 7). The OMC-
BAFS type emerged instead of the OUCBAFS type
after an artificial reduction in the associated living tree
density: this was an artificial pattern that has recently
been developed by the growers.
Discussion
Our results showed that cocoa had a prominent role in
the study area considering the total land area devoted
to cocoa and its contribution to the livelihoods of rural
people (Carrière 2003; Jagoret et al. 2009). This
observation is in agreement with those of Jagoret et al.
(2009) on the impact of the 1990s crises, the deval-
uation of the CFA franc, and the rise of cocoa prices in
the early 2000s, which triggered renewed farmers’
interest in cocoa (Sonwa et al. 2006; CIRAD 2015).
Alternatives such as intensive food crop or oil palm
production are hampered by marketing problems due
to the poor road infrastructure (Jagoret et al. 2009).
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Agroforest Syst
Moreover, the results showed that cocoa was of utmost
social importance in household livelihoods. Cocoa
cultivation provides farmers with the necessary
income to pursue basic everyday activities and to
finance key life events, e.g. marriage, housing con-
struction or renovations, children’s education (Car-
rière 2003) and healthcare (Champaud 1966;
Sakanashi 2011; Arizmendi 2013).
Regarding the spatial distribution of the cocoa
plantations, we found that the majority of them were
located 3-5 km from the farmers’ houses. This remote
location of some plantations from the owners’ villages
could be explained by the fact that the past colonial
administration (German) forced indigenous people to
move closer to the roads, and by the history of the
displacement of communities seeking suitable lands
(Santoir 1992). Upon arrival, communities sought to
secure landownership over forest margins by planting
perennial crops (Carrière 2003). Most of the land close
to the farmers’ houses is reserved for everyday village
activities and crops requiring regular follow-up (pea-
nut crops, home gardens, etc.). The distance nega-
tively affects cocoa plantation monitoring, village life
(Carrière 2003), while land conflicts represent a socio-
cultural risk and hinder investment in agricultural
projects (Tano Assi 2012; Sakanashi 2011).
The estimated average cocoa yield of the plots in
our sample (206.9 kg/ha) was low, just below that
observed (255 kg/ha) in surveys conducted in the
Centre Region of Cameroon (Jagoret et al. 2011). In
these latter surveys, the lowest yields were observed in
Ngomedzap and its surroundings, including Akongo.
The CBAFS characteristics in Akongo indicated that
the low yields could be attributed to the poor
‘‘modern’’ techniques implemented by farmers (Ariz-
mendi 2013), in particular the low use of fungicide
treatments, which corroborates the findings of Ondoa-
Manga (2006). Furthermore, the geographical isola-
tion of cocoa plantations complicates cocoa tending
and contributes to the excessive plantation aging trend.
Jagoret et al. (2009) showed that Ngomedzap and its
surroundings is an old production area featuring old
cocoa plantations (more than 40 years old). This was
also observed by Michel et al. (2019), who further
noted that cocoa trees were not renewed in Akongo
cocoa plantations and were as old as the plantations.
Farmers thus tended to neglect old plantations, leaving
them more vulnerable to diseases and pests, in turn
causing further yield drops (Tano 2012; Ruf 1991).
Agroforest Syst
Fig. 7 Associated and cocoa tree densities of the 15 CBAFS (cocoa-based agroforestry system) plots of the sample and trajectories
from one type to another, Akongo, central Cameroon
The labour and input intensification level on cocoa
farms was low, yet this is one of the main yield-
determining factors (Jagoret et al. 2008; Cerda et al.,
2014).
The comparison between the different types of
CBAFS showed differences in associated living tree
densities, but similarities in the species composition.
The associated living tree species diversity was
generally high, with a predominance of woody
species, which formed a more or less dense high
stratum. The CBAFS monitored in the study area were
characterised by a low presence of fruit tree species,
contrary to the situation in other Cameroonian areas
such as around Lékié, near Yaoundé, where the high
fruit tree species diversity allowed cocoa farmers to
diversify their income sources (Jagoret et al. 2014;
Rimlinger et al, 2019). Akongo is located in the South-
Central area of Cameroon, characterised by the
presence of dense forests. This could explain the high
shade tree density in the systems, corroborating the
results obtained by Gockowski et Ndoumbé (2004)
and Michel et al. (2019). The increased use of the
Amelonado variety is favoured because of its robust-
ness and longevity—growers are still hesitant to adopt
new varieties or hybrids that are less resistant, more
vulnerable to diseases and less tolerant to shade
(Paulin et al. 2003).
The study of the CBAFS dynamics revealed two
possible trajectories (Fig. 7). The first (natural
change), was the maintenance by farmers of a high
associated tree density in ageing plantations (OUC-
BAFS). The second corresponded to a major structural
change (artificial change), with a sharp decrease in the
density of these associated trees (OMCBAS). These
different trajectories were observed by Arizmendi
(2013), Ngo Bieng et al. (2013a, b), Sonwa et al.
(2016) and Jagoret et al. (2018). In order to adapt to
changes in the natural and socioeconomic environ-
ment, farmers may modify the structure of their
plantations to boost production and thereby their
performance, thus resulting in this artificial trend. The
key challenge of achieving good production is linked
to the ratio between farmers’ income and input prices;
the increase in income from cocoa would therefore
induce the development of more intensive and
simplified systems (Nunoo et al. 2014; Cerda et al.,
2014). The arrival of new types of cocoa growers,
including young people returning from cities (Sun-
derlin et al. 2000), ‘‘elites’’ with high financial capital,
has also led to new CBAFS dynamics. Our observa-
tions did not show any increase in cocoa yield in the
modified plantations (OMCBAFS). In fact, these
changes appeared to be recent, given the number of
stumps observed in these plots. In addition, the cocoa
trees were still old, although more pruned, and the use
of pesticide treatments remained low. The increase in
cocoa prices in the early 2000s following a long period
of crisis (Jagoret et al. 2018) would have only recently
impacted the technical practices of farmers in the
remote area of Akongo.
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In the coming years, the CBAFS dynamics will be
impacted by a lack of land, with every new generation
left with smaller shares. When this sharing takes place
between several heirs, there is little margin left for
newcomers. As indicated in the Results, cocoa farmers
in the study area still had untapped and fallow arable
lands upon which they expected to expand. In
addition, this expansion could be fostered by the
willingness of farmers to increase the area under cocoa
to be inherited by their descendants. Ultimately, as a
result of increased land pressure from upcoming
generations, the dynamics could shift towards inten-
sification and simplification of the CBAFS structure
and diversity in the coming years.
The cocoa sector dominated the economy in the
study area and, as cocoa prices have markedly
increased over the last 10 years, this domination will
undoubtedly further increase. However, should inter-
national cocoa prices fall as occurred in the 1990s,
there could be a rapid decline with an abandonment of
cocoa plantations.
Conclusion
Our study on the characteristics of the different types
of cocoa-based agroforestry systems, and their dynam-
ics and trends was conducted in the Akongo subregion
of central Cameroon. The large area devoted to cocoa
plantations and its significant contribution to farmers’
income confirmed the socioeconomic importance of
cocoa cultivation. Growers have developed several
practices and strategies to boost income from cocoa.
The different cocoa growers’ choices and interven-
tions, as well as the cocoa plantation age resulted in a
diverse range of CBAFS development patterns. In
spite of this diversity, most CBAFS had a similar
vertical structure (multi-layered) and diversity (high
forest tree species diversity in each stratum). Con-
versely, systems that had undergone intense and
cumulative anthropogenic intervention (OMCBAFS),
with a decreased associated tree density, differed
markedly from OUCABFS where only clearing and
fungicide spraying was applied. In addition, cocoa
hybrid varieties started to appear in the youngest
plantations (YUCBAFS). These dynamics could shift
towards simplification of the CBAFS structure and
diversity in the coming years, due to the increased land
pressure from the upcoming generations. Significant
123
Agroforest Syst
efforts to boost access to information and training of
cocoa growers would be required to enhance cocoa
growers’ techniques and the financial and ecological
benefits of CBAFS in the Akongo study area. The
results of this study could form a base for further
development and research on cocoa cultivation.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by the
AFS4FOOD/SAFSE/WP1T2 project. We are very grateful to
the French Institute of Research for Development (IRD), the
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and the
French Agricultural Research Centre for International
Development (CIRAD) in Cameroon. We would also like to
thank the local population for their full collaboration. Finally,
we thank Cameroon Bioscience Society for giving us the
opportunity to present this study at their 22nd Annual
Conference in Cameroon in 2015. We are also grateful to the
Cameroon Academy of Sciences, the Cameroon Academy of
Young Scientists and the International Network for Government
Science Advice for giving us the opportunity to present this
study at their 1st International Conference in Cameroon in 2019.
We especially acknowledge D. Manley and the reviewers for
their helpful comments on earlier versions.
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