CONTENT

• Energy:
Basal or Resting Metabolism
Physical Activity
Thermogenesis

• Human energy needs and recommendation

Energy Needs of the Human Body

Total Energy Needs Consist of Three/Four Parts

1) Basal Metabolism

2) Physical Activity

3) Diet Induced Thermogenesis (DIT)

4) Growth (pregnancy, infancy and childhood)

1) Basal Metabolism
 Basal Metabolism
The metabolic activity required for the basic
maintenance of body life and function

 Measurement
Determination of oxygen consumed, carbon dioxide
released, and nitrogen excretion
  Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

Unit = kcal/ min or hour/ kg body weight

or = kJ/ min or hour/ kg body weight

Condition: 1. No food for at least 12 hours

2. A night of restful sleep before determination
3. No strenuous exercise after the night of restful
sleep, and complete rest in a reclining position for
at least 30 minutes prior to actual determination
4. Elimination of all psychic and physical factors that
cause excitement
5. Air temperature comfortable and somewhere
between the limits of 20o and 27oC (68o and 80oF)
 Water
(1)

(2) Thermometer

(3) Thermometer

(4) (7)
(6)
(5)
Reservoir (8)
(9)

Fan H2SO4 Soda H2SO4 Oxygen

lime

The Atwater & Benedict respiration chamber. The walls of the chamber are insulated but the chamber has a viewing window (7),
and a porthole (6) that gives access to the chamber. Direct calorimetry measurements are made by the system represented by
(1)-(5). Water enters through (1) and leaves through (4) and the amount of water flowing through the system is determined by
collecting it in a reservoir (5). The temperature change of the water is determined by measuring inlet and outlet water
temperatures by means of thermometers at (2) and (3). The indirect measurements are made using the circuit in which air is
drawn from the chamber at (8) and returned with replacement oxygen at (9). The details of the means of operation of the
chamber are given in the text. (after Bell, Davidson & Scarborough, 1965.)

Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994

 Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)

Condition: are same as BMR except non-fasting.

RMR
( > BMR) includes some energy expended for
digestion, absorption and distribution of
digested foods, etc.
The basal metabolic rate is the rate of use of body’s energy stores. The BMR is determined while at
rest after an overnight fast. Generally, the BMR is determined soon after awakening and 14 hours
after the last meal. The BMR is fairly constant over the course of a day. These data are from a study
of a human subject. Respiratory gas samples were taken at various intervals and used for O 2 and CO2
analyses. The results of the analyses were used to calculate the rate of O 2 consumption, the RQ, and
the metabolic rate at the indicated times. The results demonstrate that the BMR during the first hour of
rest was about 190 kJ/ hr.

250
Metabolic rate (kJ/hr)

200

175

150

125

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hours

Basal metabolic rate. (Redrawn with

permission from Leff et al. (1987).)
 Energy Required for Basal Metabolism
- Maintenance of body tissues and temperature
- Respiration
- Heart, kidney and other basic functions

 Variables (Factors) Influence the Basal Metabolism

- Age
- Sex
- Lean body mass
- Environmental temperature
- Hormonal status
- Stress
- Pregnancy/ Lactation
  Calories = 56.7e-0.24t – 32e-1.23t
--- Values given by Du Bois basal metabolism
50
BMR (kcal/hr/m3)

40

30

20

10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Age (yrs)

Changes in basal metabolism from birth to maturity. The values for

adult men and women average 33.9 abd 28.9 kcal/hr/m 2, respectively.
(Source: redrawn by permission from Brody (1945))
 BMR : Lean Body Mass and Body Fat

 Lean Body Mass = The weight of body - the fat content

- In adults, the BMR is most closely related to
lean body mass
 Body Fat = total body lipid content

Adipose tissue has very little metabolic activity

For example: BMR for men > BMR for women
because women have
higher percent fat than man
 BMR (kcal/min) BMR (kJ/min)
1.5
Body Fat 6.0
1.4 5%
10% 5.5
1.3 15%
20%
1.2 25% 5.0
30%
1.1 4.5
1.0
4.0
0.9
3.5
0.8
0.7 3.0

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Body weight (kg)

Effect of body composition (% of body fat) on basal (or resting) energy expenditure at different
body weight in male () and female () individuals. The graph clearly shows that, for a given
body weight, the lower the percentage of fat, the higher the basal metabolic rate (BMR). In
addition, it indicates that the BMR of 75kg woman with 30% body fat is not more elevated than
the values of a lean man of 60kg with 10% body fat. (Data from Durnin, J.V.G.A., Passmore,
R,; Energy, Work and Leisure. London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1967.)
Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994
 Variables (Factors) Influence the Basal Metabolism

- Age
- Sex
- Lean body mass
- Environmental temperature
- Hormonal status
- Stress
-Pregnancy/ Lactation
-Coffee, tea and smoking?
 Effect of Environmental Temperature on Basal Metabolism
- Relatively small for humans (0.5%)
- Significant for hibernating animals

 Effect of Hormone on Basal Metabolism

- Thyroid- hyperthyroid (up to 50 %)

- Genetics
- Psychological stress
 Body Tissues Do Not Equally Contribute to Basal Metabolism

% Total Basal Metabolism

Brain 20
Liver 20
Muscle 40
Some Ways of Estimating Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)a
Equation Investigator (Year)
Men:
  Harris and Benedict (1919)
Women:
  Brody (1945) and Klieber
Human or BMR = 70W0.75
animal: (1947.1965)

Men:   Klieber (1965)

Women:  
Men or BMR = 1.3kcal/hr/kg fat-free body weight Grande and Keys
Women: (irrespective of sex and age, if 20-60 years) (1973, 1978)

Men: BMR = 1.0kcal/hr/kg Useful average for

quick estimates
Women: BMR = 0.9kcal/hr/kg

Source: Information from Buskirk and Mendez (1980) and Grande and Keys
(1980)
a
kcal/24/hr.
b
W. weight; L, height; A, age.

Linder, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1991

Energy Needs of the Human Body

Total Energy Needs Consist of Three Parts

1) Basal Metabolism

2) Physical Activity

3) Diet Induced Thermogenesis (DIT)

2) Physical Activity

 Increase need for ATP (-P)

 Increase utilization of fuel (carbohydrate or fat)

 Increase consumption of O2 and release of CO2

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Relationships Among Respiration. Heart Rate, and Caloric Expenditure for
Different Degrees of Physical Activity (in Adults)
Respiratory rate Oxygen
Caloric expenditure
Physical effort (ventilation vol) consumption Heart rate
(with examples) a (L/min) (L/min) (beats/min) kcal/min kcal/kg/hr b

Very light <10 <0.5 <80 <2.5

Sleeping, lying, sitting, 1.0-1.1
driving, sewing, standing, 1.1-1.5 1.3-1.5 av
ironing
Light 10-20 0.5-1.0 80-100 2.5-5.0
Walking (2.5-3.5 mph), trade work, 2.5-3.0 2.6-2.9 av
shopping, table tennis, golf
Moderate 20-35 1.0-1.5 100-120 5.0-7.5 4.1-4.3 av
Walking (3.5-4 mph), dancing,
scrubbing floors, weeding, hoeing,
cycling, tennis
Heavy 35-50 1.5-2.0 120-140 7.5-10.0 8.0-8.4 av
Walking uphill with load, pick and
shovel work, swimming, basketball
Very heavy 50-65 2.0-2.5 140-160 10.0-12.5
Running, climbing
Unduly heavy 65-85 2.0-2.5 140-160 10.0-12.5

Exhausting ≥85 ≥3.0 ≥180 ≥15

Source: Modified from Buskirk and Mendez (1980)

a
Food and Nutrition Board (1974)
b
Per adult (includes BMR); calculated from O2 consumption (4.5-5.0 kcal/L O 2 consumed). Does not take
into account substantial variations in body size or in physical fitness. The effect of anxiety on heart rate is
also not considered. Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994
Physical Activity Ratios in Different Types of Activity

 Physical Activity Ratio (PAR)

= Energy expended during activity / BMR
Linder, 1991
Energy Needs of the Human Body

Total Energy Needs Consist of Three Parts

1) Basal Metabolism

2) Physical Activity

3) Diet Induced Thermogenesis (DIT)

3) Diet-Induced Thermogenesis (DIT)

 DIT Consists of Two Components:

I) Specific Dynamic Effect/ Action of Food (SDE):

 Digest
 Absorb
 Distribute
 Storage

II) Activation of Brown Adipose Tissue

 Fat, Carbohydrate and Protein Have Different DIT

Fat : The least “expensive” (4%)

Protein : The most “expensive” (up to 30%)

DIT is mainly utilized for the removal of N,
synthesis of urea and gluconeogenesis

Carbohydrate : Intermediate (6%)

 Factors Related to the Energy Available from Ingested
Fat, Carbohydrate, and Protein
Fats Carbohydrate Protein Typical
mixed diet a
Digestibility (av%) 95 97 91 -
Diet-induced thermogenesis
(Specific dynamic effect) (3-4)b 10-15 15-20 6-8
% of ingested kcalf 31c 15-30d 10d

Energy used for storage only 3 5 (glycogen) (<15-20)b (10)b

(% kcal) 15 triglyceride) (22)e

Conversion to ATP (if used

directly and not stored)
~P bonds (mol/100g nutrient) 50.4 21.1 22.6 34.4
Costs/~P (kcal/bond) 18.6 17.6 22.7 19

Max percent kcal converted to ~40 ~40 32-34 39

ATP

Source: Based on information from Crist et al. (1980)

a
45% of kcal from carbohydrate, 45% from fat, 10% from protein.
b
Values in parentbeses are approximations.
c
At high glucose infusion rates (mainly converted to fat) [King st al., 1986].
d
Anderson (1982)
e
Estimation.by Kinney (1988).
f
Vincludes storage of 80% of kcal.
Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994
 Estimation of Energy Requirement
1. Calculations based on BMR, activities, and DIT
Sample Calculations of Energy Needs
Calculations based on BMR, activities, and DIT: 75-kg sedentary adult man
Individual Total for category
activity
Basal metabolism
=1800 kcal
1.0 kcal/hr/kg x 24 hr x 75 kg
Physical activities above basal
Reading, writing, telephoning, eating, 12.5 hr
0.4 kcal/hr/kg x 12.5 hr x 75 kg =375 kcal

Walking slowly, 1hr

=150 kcal
2.0 kcal/hr/kg x 1 hr x 75 kg
Playing cello, 1hr
1.3 kcal/hr/kg x 1 hr x 75 kg =120 kcal = 645 kcal

Diet-induced thermogenesis
2500 kcal ingested x 10% = 250 kcal

Total needs = 2695 kcal

Linder, 1991
 Estimation of Energy Requirement

2. Calculations based on rates that include BMR and DIT

Calculations based on rates that include BMR and DIT: for the reference man and
women
Man (70kg)b Woman (58kg)b
Activity Time (hr) kcal/min Total kcal/min Total

Sleeping or lying down 8 1.1 528 1.0 480

Sitting 7 1.5 630 1.1 462

Standing 5 2.5 750 1.5 450

Walking 2 3.0 380 2.5 300

Other 2 4.5 540 3.0 360

Total needs 2808 kcal 2052 kcal

b
The NRC standar man and woman is 23-year-old, lives and works in a thermally
neutral environment, has an office or light industry occupation, and a modest
recreational program. From Buskirk and Mendez (1980)

Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994

 Energy Released as Heat in Catabolism
or Futile ( 無用 )Cycles

1. 1860 kJ as heat is released when

1 mole of glucose is oxidized into CO2 and H2O.

Energy

Glucose completely oxidized 3000 kJ

38 ATP ( 1ATP = 30 kJ ) 1140 kJ
Energy release as heat 1860 kJ (62%)
2. Futile Cycles waste ATP and generate heat

For example: simultaneous operation of

glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.

ATP + fructose-6-phosphate ADP + fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate + H+

Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate +H2O fructose-6-phosphate + Pi

ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + H+ + Heat

3. Uncoupled Mitochondria in Brown Fat Produce Heat

I) Mitochondria of brown fat oxidizes fuel (fatty acids),

passing electrons to O2 through the respiratory
chain and generating
 No ATPs
 But heat

II) Brown adipose tissue exists:

 Very little in adult humans
 Significant in newborns
 Significant in hibernating animals
 Food Energy
(heat of combustion)1
(Kcal/g)
Nondigestible %
1%-9
energy, lost in feces
or used by bacteria
Digestible (absorbed) Energy
(E intake –E feces)/ E intake x 100

Some losses in
urine, sweat, and
sloughed cells
Metabolizable Energy
(Energy value of foods)2

Heat (4.0 kcal/g CHO or protein)

50% (9.0kcal/g fat)
Released in
catabolism or d iet) (7.0kcal/g ethanol = 5.6kcal/ml)
ed
futile cycles mix 25%-40%
(on
-1 0%
6%
Energy required for
digestion, absorption, Energy Utilized or Trapped (~P)4
distribution, modification, (Net energy: energy for basal
and storage of digestible metabolism and physical activities)
nutrients (SDE)

The fate of food energy. Footnotes: 1 Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 L of H 2O from 14.5-
15.5oC (determined by direct calorimetry). 2 As found in food composition tables. 3 Most energy required
for proteins and carbohydrates. 4 High-energy phosphate bond energy, utilizable for anabolic processes.

Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994

 Metabolic Sites for Loss Glucose Energy

Glycogen
Pentose Path
NADPH

ATP GLYCOLYSIS
1,3 diglycerate P G6P  Glucose

Pyruvate NADH diOH acetone P CYTOSOL

Acetyl-CoA
Glycerol-3-P
 
KREBS CO2 FAD
CYCLE OAA
Mitochondria

NADH FADH2 diOH acetone P

O2
Electron flow (gradient)
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
ADP heat ADP heat ADP H2 O
coupling ATP ATP ATP
 
uncoupling uncoupling

Metabolic Sites for Loss Glucose Energy () represent areas where diversionary losses of energy may occur

Linder, 1991
Recommended Daily Energy Intake for Persons with Lightly to Moderately
Active Lifestyles Having the Median Weight and Height for the U.S. Population
    Weight Height  
Category Age (years) kg lb cm in. Energy needs (KJ/day)
Infants 0-0.5 6 13 60 24 2720
  0.5-1.0 9 20 71 28 3556
Children 1-3 13 29 90 35 5439
  4-6 20 44 112 44 7531
  7-10 28 62 132 52 8368
Males 11-14 45 99 157 62 10460
  15-18 66 145 176 69 12552
  19-24 72 160 177 70 12133
  25-50 79 174 176 70 12133
  51+ 77 170 173 68 6923
Females 11-14 46 101 157 62 9205
  15-18 55 120 163 64 9205
  19-24 58 128 164 65 9205
  25-50 63 138 163 64 9205
  51+ 63 143 160 63 7950
Pregnancy 1st trimester 0
  2nd trimester +1255
  3rd trimester +1255
Lactation 1st 6 months +2090
  2nd 6 months         +2090

Source: Food and Nutrition Board (1989). “Recommended Dietary Allowances,’’ 10 th ed., p. 33.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Brody, Nutritional Biochemistry, 1994