BACHALOR IN BUSINESS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

BIT 4401: KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

ASSIGNMENT I

Yahya Abdi Yahya _19/06582

Goga Paulson 21/01764
Olick Aketch 20/01398
Lynette Wangui 19/06658
Amos Tinega 20/02662
Bencaleb Mutie 21/04342
Neema Patience 20/04080
Dennis kamande 19/05734
Barrack Mwenda 19/02612
wakhungu owell 21/02310

LECTURER: MERAB OMONDI

ASSIGNMENT

1.Discuss the tools for codifying knowledge?

What is Knowledge codification?

Knowledge codification is representation of knowledge so that it can be "reused"

either by an individual or an organization.

And: Codification is representing knowledge in a manner that can easily be accessed.

What is the purpose of knowledge codification?

To convert corporate knowledge into accessible and applicable formats

Tools of Knowledge Codification

a) Knowledge Maps

• Knowledge maps originated from the belief that people act on things that they understand
and accept. It indicates that self-determined change is sustainable.
• Knowledge map is a visual representation of knowledge. They can represent explicit/tacit,
formal/informal, documented/undocumented, internal/external knowledge.
• It is not a knowledge repository. It is a sort of directory that points towards people,
documents, and repositories. It may identify strengths to exploit and missing knowledge
gaps to fill.
• Knowledge Mapping is very useful when it is required to visualize and explore complex
systems. Examples of complex systems are ecosystems, the internet, telecommunications
systems, and customer-supplier chains in the stock market.

Knowledge Mapping is a multi-step process.

Key can be extracted from database or literature and placed in tabular form as lists of facts. These
tabled relationships can then be connected in networks to form the required knowledge maps. A
popular knowledge map used in human resources is a skills planner in which employees are matched
to jobs

Steps to build the map:

• A structure of the knowledge requirements should be developed.

• Knowledge required of specific jobs must be defined.
• You should rate employee performance by knowledge competency.
• You should link the knowledge map to some training program for career development and
job advancement.

b) Decision Table is another technique used for knowledge codification. A decision table is a
scheduled rule logic entry, in table format, that consists of conditions, represented in the row
and column headings, and actions, represented as the intersection points of the conditional
cases in the table. Decision tables are best suited for business rules that have multiple
conditions. It consists of some conditions, rules, and actions.
c) Decision Tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like model of decisions and their
possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one
way to display an algorithm that only contains conditional control statements.
 • A decision tree is usually a hierarchically arranged semantic network.
• A decision tree for the phonecard company discounting policy (as discussed above) is shown
next.

d) Frames

A frame is a codification scheme used for organizing knowledge through previous experience.

It deals with a combination of declarative and operational knowledge.

Key elements of frames:

Slot: A specific object being described/an attribute of an entity.

Facet: The value of an object/slot.

A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to
describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot
values.

e) Production Rules

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production rule
fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule
may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps.

f) Case-Based Reasoning

It is reasoning from relevant past cases in a way similar to human's use of past experiences to arrive
at conclusions. Case-based reasoning is a technique that records and documents cases and then
searches the appropriate cases to determine their usefulness in solving new cases presented to the
expert. The aim is to bring up the most similar historical case that matches the present case. Adding
new cases and reclassifying the case library usually expands knowledge. A case library may require
considerable database storage as well as an efficient retrieval system.

g) Knowledge-Based Agents

Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an internal state
of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge after observations and take
actions. These agents can represent the world with some formal representation and act intelligently.

An intelligent agent is a program code which is capable of performing autonomous action in a timely
fashion.

• They can exhibit goal directed behaviour by taking initiative.

• They can be programmed to interact with other agents or humans by using some agent
communication language.
• In terms of knowledge-based systems, an agent can be programmed to learn from the user
behaviour and deduce future behaviour for assisting the user.
2. Discuss the following types of reasoning using examples
What is Reasoning? Reasoning is the ability to assess things rationally by applying logic based on
new or existing information when making a decision or solving a problem.
i. Case based reasoning
Case-based reasoning is any kind of problem-solving approach that uses past solutions to solve
similar problems. It assumes that knowledge can be acquired through past experiences, and can help
warn you of avenues that will lead to failure or to help you think of successful past solutions that
could be adapted to the problem at hand.
For example, Google Maps uses case-based reasoning to tell you how long your journey will take by
examining the patterns of past users to see how long it took them to get from point A to point B.
Even if your path is from two slightly different points, it makes inferences on how long your journey
will take.
ii. Constraint based reasoning
Constraint-based reasoning is an important area of automated reasoning in artificial intelligence,
with many applications. These include configuration and design problems, planning and scheduling,
temporal and spatial reasoning, defeasible and causal reasoning, machine vision and language
understanding, qualitative and diagnostic reasoning, and expert systems. Constraint-Based
Reasoning presents current work in the field at several levels: theory, algorithms, languages,
applications, and hardware. Constraint-based reasoning has connections to a wide variety of fields,
including formal logic, graph theory, relational databases, combinatorial algorithms, operations
research, neural networks, truth maintenance, and logic programming. The ideal of describing a
problem domain in natural, declarative terms and then letting general deductive mechanisms
synthesize individual solutions has to some extent been realized, and even embodied, in
programming languages.
iii. Reasoning by analogy
Analogical reasoning is a form of thinking that finds similarities between two or more things and
then uses those characteristics to find other qualities common to them. It's based on the brain's
tendency to notice patterns and make associations. Once the brain recognizes a pattern, it can
associate the pattern with specific things, and this leads to analogous reasoning. Analogous thinking
can help you expand your understanding by looking for similarities between different things.
Example: A supermarket has served as an analogical source for many businesses. When planning a
new business, evaluating how to serve customers better, or planning a new line, many business
strategists reach for a supermarket analogy to ask if they can provide everything a customer may
need when shopping for items in their category.
iv. Model based reasoning
Model-based reasoning An approach in artificial intelligence that relies on the use of a model as the
basis of its inferencing abilities rather than empirical information. A model is a principled
representation of a problem domain that has predictive and explicative features. An example is seen
in diagnosis applications where model-based reasoning offers an alternative to methods based on
probabilistic reasoning.

3.Discuss the role of data mining in KM and categories/types of data mining.

What is Data Mining? It is a process of extracting useful information or knowledge from a
tremendous amount of data (or big data).
Roles of Data mining in KM
Decision Making:The applications of data mining help an organization to make informed decisions.
Consequently, the interactions generate Business Intelligence (BI) which help companies to utilize
and convert available information and knowledge in real-time for business development. Also, data
mining techniques uncover hidden customer/product information for businesses which can provide
valuable knowledge and establish BI. With this, it becomes easy to analyze the product sales
information which, in turn, help marketing department to formulate the strategy for product
promotion.
Further, let’s discuss some applications of DM and KM in business domains, who utilize data mining
techniques to find interesting data patterns in form of knowledge:
Retail Industry: This industry gathers enormous data on sales, customer shopping history, etc. due
to the increasing popularity of e-commerce these days. Here data mining can help to build extensive
knowledge about customer’s buying behavior and trends. By knowing this, retailers can achieve
better customer satisfaction, reduce operational costs, and can extend their brands.
Banking and Finance Sector: Banking and finance sector has huge databases filled with critical
financial and economic data. Here, DM techniques can provide the benefits of identifying patterns
and deviations in business information and market prices necessary to recognize global risk and ROI.
By assisting banks in the areas of risk management, fraud detection, customer relationship etc., it
facilitates decision making and knowledge sharing processes.
Health Care Institutions: Mining technique like clustering can help to attain demographics of the
patients having serious diseases like cancer, tumor etc. This knowledge can help doctors to explore
disease’s symptoms and relationships which, in turn, can improve treatment therapies and
operation procedures.
Aviation Industry: This sector can be benefitted by association rule or clustering technique to gain
customer’s knowledge which, later on, can be utilized to offer discounts on flight tickets by
determining customer’s flying frequency.
Online Business: E-commerce stores can take the huge advantage of integrating DM tools
&techniques to extract the information stored in a customer profile. Once, the information is
collected, the owner can offer reliable products recommendations to customers based on their
interest to boost sales.
Insurance companies: Insurers can sell more policies and enhance conversion rates via running
effective campaigns, execute processes and reduce operational costs after knowing how many
customers are interested in buying policies, their requirements, and interests.
Manufacturing: Manufacturers would be able to produce products, people are more interested in,
after knowing their choices through DM and KM process.
Types of data mining.
1. Smoothing (Prepare the Data)
This particular method of data mining technique comes under the genre of preparing the data. The
main intent of this technique is removing noise from the data. Here algorithms like simple
exponential, the moving average are used to remove the noise. During exploratory analysis, this
technique is convenient to visualize trends/sentiments.
2. Aggregation (Prepare the Data)
As the term suggests, a group of data is aggregated to achieve more information. This technique is
employed to overview business objectives and can be performed manually or using specialized
software. This technique is generally employed on big data, as big data don’t provide the required
information as a whole.

3. Generalization (Prepare the Data)

Again, as the name suggests, this technique is employed to generalize data as a whole. This is
different from aggregation, so the data during generalization is not grouped to achieve more
information, but the entire data set is generalized. This will enable a data science model to adapt to
newer data points.
4. Normalization (Prepare the Data)
In this technique, special care is employed to data points to bring them into the same scale for
analysis. For example, a person’s age and salary fall in different measurement scales; hence plotting
them on a graph won’t help us attain any useful info about the trends present as a collective feature.
Using normalization, we can bring them into an equal scale to perform apple to apple comparison.
5. Attribute/Feature selection (Prepare the Data)
In this technique, we employ methods to select features so that the model used to train the data
sets can imply value to predict the data it has not seen. This is very analogous to choosing the right
outfit from a wardrobe full of clothes to fit oneself right for the event. Non-relevant features can
negatively impact model performance, let alone improving performance.
6. Classification (Model the Data)
In this technique of data mining, we will group know as “classes”. In this technique, we employ the
features selected (as discussed in the above point) collectively to groups/categories. For example, in
a shop, if we have to evaluate whether a person will buy a product or not, there are “n” number of
features we can collectively use to get a result of True/False.
7. Pattern Tracking
This is one of the basic techniques employed in data mining to get information about
trends/patterns which the data points might exhibit. For example, we can determine a trend of more
sales during a weekend or holiday time rather than on weekdays or working days.
8. Outlier Analysis or Anomaly Detection
Here and the name suggests, this technique is used to find or analyse outliers or anomalies. Outliers
or anomalies are not negative data points; they are just something that stands out from the entire
dataset’s general trend. On identifying the outliers, we can either remove them completely from the
dataset, which occurs when data preparation is done. Or else this technique is extensively used in
model datasets to predict outliers as well.
9. Clustering
This technique is pretty much similar to classification, but the only difference is we don’t know the
group in which data points will fall post grouping after collection of features. This method is typically
used in grouping people to target similar product recommendations.
10. Regression
This technique is used to predict the likelihood of a feature with the presence of other features. For
example, we can formulate the likelihood of an item’s price concerning demand, competition, and a
few other features.
11. Neural Network
This technique is based on the principle of how biological neurons work. Similar to what neurons in
the human body does, the neurons in a neural network in data mining work also acts as the
processing unit and connecting another neuron to pass on the information along the chain.
12. Association
In this data mining method, the relation between different features is determined and, in turn, used
to find either hidden patterns or related analysis is performed as per business requirement. For
example, we can find features correlated to each other using the association and thus emphasize
removing anyone to remove some redundant features and improve processing power/time.

4. Discuss, Knowledge Sharing Systems e.g Ontology Development Systems, Categorization

and Classification Tools, XML-Based Tools

There are many different types of KMS, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Some of the
most popular types of KMS include:

1. Knowledge Sharing Systems:

Knowledge sharing systems (KSS) are systems that enable knowledge to be shared between
individuals within an organization. Knowledge sharing systems typically provide a central repository
for knowledge, and allow users to search for and share knowledge. Knowledge sharing systems can
be used to support collaboration and problem solving, and to improve decision making.

A knowledge sharing system is a system that enables users to share and reuse knowledge.
Knowledge sharing systems can be used to support collaborative work, to enable knowledge sharing
between individuals and groups, or to allow users to access and reuse knowledge stored in a central
repository. Knowledge sharing systems can be either web-based or desktop-based.

Web-based knowledge sharing systems are usually designed to support collaboration and allow
users to access and share knowledge stored in a central repository. Web-based knowledge sharing
systems usually have a user interface that allows users to browse, search, and add new content to
the system. Desktop-based knowledge sharing systems are usually designed to allow users to access
and reuse knowledge stored on their own computer. Desktop-based knowledge sharing systems
usually have a user interface that allows users to browse, search, and add new content to their own
personal knowledge base.

2. Ontology Development Systems:

Ontology development systems (ODS) are systems that enable the development of ontologies,
which are formal representations of knowledge. ODS typically provide a user interface for ontology
development, and allow ontologies to be shared and reused. ODS can be used to support knowledge
representation and reasoning, and to improve decision making.

Ontology development systems are also tools that help users to develop and maintain ontologies.
Ontologies are formal representations of knowledge that can be used to represent the concepts and
relationships between concepts in a domain. Ontology development systems usually have a user
interface that allows users to create, edit, and view ontologies.

3. Categorization and Classification Tools:

Categorization and classification tools are used to organize and classify information and knowledge.
These tools typically provide a user interface for categorizing and classifying content, and allow users
to browse and search for content. Categorization and classification tools can be used to support
information retrieval and knowledge management.

Categorization and classification tools are tools that help users to organize and classify information.
Categorization and classification tools usually have a user interface that allows users to browse,
search, and add new content to the system. Classification tools may also have a user interface that
allows users to apply classification schemes to documents or other resources.

4. XML-Based Tools:

XML-based tools are tools that use XML (Extensible Markup Language) to represent and exchange
information and knowledge. XML-based tools typically provide a user interface for editing and
exchanging XML documents, and allow documents to be shared and reused. XML-based tools can be
used to support information exchange and data integration.

XML-based tools are also tools that use XML (Extensible Markup Language) to represent
information. XML-based tools usually have a user interface that allows users to browse, search, and
add new content to the system. XML-based tools may also have a user interface that allows users to
apply classification schemes to documents or other resources.

Reference:

• Source: Chapter 10, Knowledge Management Solutions, Becerra et al.

• Grant, R.M. (1996) Prospering in dynamically competitive environments: organisational
capability as knowledge integration. Organization Science, 7(4), 375-387.
• Nonaka, I. (1994) A dynamic theory of organisational knowledge creation. Organization
Science.