BIOLOGY PRELIMINARY NOTES

MODULE 1: CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE

Outcomes
- Conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data
information
- Selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information
using a range of appropriate media
- Describes single cells as the basis for all life by analysing and explaining cells
ultrastructure and biochemical processes

Content Focus
Cells are the basis of life. They coordinate activities to form colonial and multicellular
organisms. Students examine the structure and function of organisms at both the cellular and
tissue levels in order to describe how they facilitate the efficient provision and removal of
materials to and from all cells in organisms. They are introduced to and investigate
biochemical processes through the application of working scientifically skills processes.

These tools will be used throughout the course to assist in making predictions and solving
problems of a multidisciplinary nature.

Content
Cell Structure
Inquiry Question: What distinguishes one cell from another?
● Investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to;
○ Examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryote Similarities Eukaryote

-
No membrane-bound - Cell membrane - Includes membrane-
organelles - Cytoplasm bound organelles
- No nucleus - DNA - Includes nucleus
- Commonly - Ribosomes - Each organelle has a
unicellular - Protein synthesis set function
- 0.1 - 5.0 micrometres - Can be multi or
- DNA is single, unicellular
circular chromosome - DNA is arranged in
- May contain linear chromosomes
plasmids - Located in nucleus
Examples: Examples:
- Bacteria - Protista
- Archaea - Fungi
 - Plants
- Animals

Differences between plant and animal cells:

- Plant cells
- Tough cell wall on the outside of their membrane
- Many plant cells have a large vacuole
- Many plant cells contain chloroplasts
- Note: not ALL plant cells have a chloroplast
- Example; cells in the underground roots cannot

photosynthesise, so do not contain any chloroplasts

○ Describe a range of technologies used to determine a cell’s structure and
function

Light microscope:

Energy Source Light

Specimen Thin or whole organism (dead or alive)

Treatment Stains can be applied to highlight different components of the cell

Image Can display inside the cell or the whole organism

Transmission electron microscope:

Energy Source Electrons

Specimen Ultra-thin section or whole microscopic dead organism

 Treatment Stained, dehydrated, fixed specimen embedded in resin and sectioned

Process Electrons transmitted through the specimen

Image Can display inside the cell or whole organism, multiple images can
create a 3D image

Electron microscope:
- Highly detailed
- Higher resolution
- Produces black and white images

Scanning electron microscope:

Energy Source Electrons

Specimen Thin section or whole organism (dead or alive)

Treatment Stained, dehydrated, fixed specimen, coated in a thin layer of metal

atoms

Process Bombard specimen with electrons and rebound pattern

Image 3D surface view

● Investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not
limited to;
○ Drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells
Estimating cell size:
Diameter of field of view
Cell size =
No . of cells acr oss field of view
 ○ Comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements

Cell structure and function:

Organelles:
- In the cytoplasm
- Visible using a microscope
- Each organelle has a specific function

Cytoplasm:
- A watery, gel-like substance
- Place where chemical reactions, food storage and other “cellular
activity” takes place

Nucleus:
- The most important part of the cell
- Control centre
- Long strands of DNA are stored here
- Explains how the cell should act
- When the cell makes a new cell it copies the DNA found here

Vacuoles:
- Storage bubbles
- Found in plant and animal cells
- May store food or nutrients for the cell

Mitochondria:
- The powerhouse of the cell which releases energy from food

Endoplasmic reticulum:
- Forms a pathway to allow materials to move through the cell

Ribosomes:
- Produces proteins for growth and repair
- Found in animal cells

Chloroplasts:
- Converts sunlight into food
- Only found in plants
- Contains green chlorophyll

Golgi Apparatus:
- Packs chemicals into small membrane vesicles for storage or
 secretion
- Example of this is the lysosome
- Lysosomes: Garbage disposal units which remove
waste

○ Modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell
membrane

Fluid mosaic structure:

- Selectively permeable membrane
- Can allow some substances to move into the cell while preventing others
from entering
- These membranes are dynamic structures that can form, change and reform
- They are made from 2 thin sheets of phospholipid bilayer sandwiched together and
contain many types of embedded molecules throughout its structure

- Phospholipid bilayers:
- Most important aspect of this layer is the structure of the individual
phospholipid
- Made of;
- 1 Phosphate based head
 - Polar
- Water-soluble
- Water-loving (hydrophilic)
- 2 Fat-soluble tails
- Water-hating (hydrophobic)
- Tails always try to avoid water

Cell Function
Inquiry Question: How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and
their external environment?
● Investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but
not limited to;
○ Conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion:
- Passive movement of ANY particles in a solution from areas of high to a low
concentration until equilibrium is reached
- Passive as molecules are moving along the concentration gradient
- Example; food dye in water

- Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

- Concentration → greater difference in concentration = faster diffusion
- Temperature → higher temp = faster diffusion occurs
- Particle size → smaller particles = faster rate

Facilitated diffusion:
- Some larger particles do not readily pass through the phospholipid bilayer
- They require protein channels and carrier proteins to assist them
Osmosis:
- “Special type of diffusion”
- Occurs when the concentration gradient involves dissolved molecules or ions which
CANNOT get through the membrane
- Refers to the net movement of water molecules across the semipermeable
membrane

Practical: Diffusion and Osmosis

Aim → to observe and describe an example of diffusion and osmosis using a selectively permeable
membrane
OBSERVATIONS

STARCH in dialysis tubing GLUCOSE in dialysis tubing

- Clear starch in tubing turned into a
muggy, purple colour
- Colour suggests that yellow iodine
from the water moved through the
tubing and reacted with the starch
- The initial appearance of the tubing
was clear, therefore meaning there
was no obvious change
- Once the water mixed with solution
and was heating, it turned a solid
orange colour suggesting the
glucose had moved from the tubing
to the outside

Part A: Diffusion
Using 20ml of starch solution, pour into dialysis tubing and note weight and colour,
place this tubing in a 200ml beaker of water and enough iodine that the water turns
yellow. Leave for 20 minutes.

Part B: Osmosis
Using 20ml of 10% glucose solution, pour into dialysis tubing and note weight and
colour, place the tubing into water and leave for 20 minutes. Collect 5ml of the water
from the beaker and place into a test tube with 2ml of Benedict’s reagent added.
 Heat and note colour changes. (NOTE: Benedict's turns from Blue to Orange in the
presence of glucose)

○ Examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis

Passive and active transport:

- Diffusion and osmosis happen automatically and not with the cell having to use any energy →
this is a passive transport process
- Many other proteins, carbohydrates and other molecules regularly move in and out of
cells
- Cells have to deliberately move substances across the membrane using ways
other than diffusion and osmosis
- These ways require the cell to use the energy (ATP from cellular respiration) to move
substances → this is an active transport process
- Active transport process: Sodium-Potassium Pump

Endocytosis:
- Membrane pinching outwards to surround the desired substance and envelop it
- Membrane rejoins itself to seal the cell, leaving the targeted substance inside
- Phagocytosis: (phago = eating, cyto = cell)
- Cell engulf a solid material to form a food vacuole
- Pinocytosis: (pino = drink)
- Cell membrane engulfs liquid that contains dissolved molecules
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
- Engulfs specific substances
Exocytosis
- Specialised cells need to remove wastes to distribute them to other parts of the
organism
- Exocytosis is the process by which cells are transported to the external environment
of the cell
- Membrane-bound vesicle moves to the cell membrane, fuses with it and then
releases its contents to the exterior of the cell

○ Relating to the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface-area-

to-volume ratio, concentration gradients and characteristics of the materials
being exchanged
SA: V ratio:
- The surface-area-to-volume ratio gets smaller as the cell gets larger
- If the cell grows past a certain point, not enough material will be able to cross the
membrane fast enough
- The amount of food, oxygen and other substances a cell needs depends on its
volume
SA divided by the V
SA → Total area of the cell membrane
 V → space taken up by the total contents of the cell

Concentration gradients:
- The relative concentration of the substance on either side of the membrane affects
the rate of diffusion of that substance
- If the concentration gradient is high, then the substance will diffuse rapidly
- In order to maintain a rapid rate of diffusion, cells need to maintain a high
concentration gradient
- As the concentration gradient decreases, the rate of diffusion will be slower
- Once the concentration reaches equilibrium, there will be no net movement across
the cell membrane

● Investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:

Cell requirements:
- All organisms need to;
- Take in nutrients and water
- Exchange gases
- Obtain energy
- Remove waste
- Have suitable forms of energy, including light and chemical energy in complex
molecules

○ Suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in

complex molecules
Energy (ATP):
- All cells use glucose as the main source of energy
- When glucose is broken down, it’s energy is released
- It is trapped and stored in high energy molecules called adenosine
triphosphate
 ○ Matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions

Inorganic compounds:
- Compounds without carbon atoms or simple molecules with only 1 or 2 carbon
atoms
- Water: makes up 70-90% of most organisms
- Oxygen: required for cellular respiration
- Carbon Dioxide: required for photosynthesis
- Nitrogen: key atom for 20 types of amino acids → proteins
- Minerals: important for building enzymes and vitamins

Organic Compounds:
- Complex chemicals: containing carbon and hydrogen atoms which are found in living
things:
- Carbohydrates: important energy source
- Lipids: important role in the cell membrane
- Proteins: composed of amino acids
- Nucleic Acid: composed of nucleotides
- Carry genetic information

○ Removal of wastes

Waste removal:
- Metabolism produces products that the organism no longer requires
- These MUST be removed
- Excretion is the removal of any waste from an organism
- Accumulation of these waste products can prevent the normal functioning of cells
- the cell membrane regulates the exit of waste products depending on size and
concentration

Waste removal from autotrophs:

- Plants remove waste through their leaves
- Plants produce no true waste
- Aquatic plants release waste into the water

Waste removal from heterotrophs:

- Carbon dioxide
- Nitrogenous waste
- Urea in urine

● Investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the

removal of cellular products and wastes in eukaryotic cells
Photosynthesis:
- The process by which plants utilise energy, typically from the sun, which is trapped by
chlorophyll
- It uses this energy to break apart water and carbon dioxide molecules, build them up
to oxygen, energy-storing glucose molecules and water molecules

Cellular Respiration:
- All organisms break down glucose as a form of energy
- Glucose can be broken down either in the;
- Presence of oxygen (aerobic cellular respiration)
- Absence of oxygen (anaerobic cellular respiration)

● Conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells

Enzyme notes:
- All organisms are adapted to a characteristic temperature range
- This temp range allows the organism’s enzymes to control its metabolism by
operating at their optimum efficiency within this range
- High temperatures → (80-100°C) → Thermophiles
- Extremely low temperatures → (0-4°C) → Psychrophiles
- Most mammals → (30-45°C)
- Most average around 37°C

Enzymes are biological catalysts. This means they lower the energy required to start a
chemical reaction within a cell but do not get used up by the reaction.

Factors affecting enzymes:

 - Temperature
- pH
- Substrate concentration

Mechanism of Enzyme actions:

- Lock-and-Key Model
- On the surface of the enzyme molecule is the “active site”
- According to the Lock-and-Key Model, the shape of an enzyme’s active
site is a perfect fit for the substrate

- Induced Fit Model

- A modified version of the Lock-and-Key Model
- According to the Induced Fit Model, the active site is somewhat
flexible and can change its shape in order to bond with the substrate

Practicals on Enzyme Activity:

1. Temperature: Clotting of milk by rennin

2. Substrate concentration: Hydrogen peroxide concentration

3. pH
● Investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection
of primary or secondary data
- Body temperature and pH are critical to survival because the vital enzymes
can only perform efficiently in a narrow range of temperature and/or pH
 BIOLOGY PRELIMINARY NOTES

MODULE 2: ORGANISATION OF LIVING THINGS

Outcomes
- Selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information
using a range of appropriate media
- Solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills
and scientific processes
- Communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a
specific audience or purpose
- Explains the structure and function of multicellular organisms and describes how the
coordinated activities of the cells, tissues and organs contribute to macroscopic
processes in organisms

Content Focus
Multicellular organisms typically consist of a number of interdependent transport systems
that range in complexity and allow the organism to exchange nutrients, gases and wastes
between the internal and external environments. Students examine the relationship between
these transport systems and compare nutrient and gas requirements.

Models of transport systems and structures have been developed over time, based on
evidence gathered from a variety of disciplines. The interrelatedness of these transport
systems is crucial in maintaining health and in solving problems related to sustainability in
agriculture and ecology.

Content
Organisation of Cells
Inquiry Question: How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?
● Compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
by:
○ Investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle

Prac investigation: Comparing different types of cells

- Unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms differ in their cell size, cell functions
and cell specialisation
Page 9 of Module 2 Notes

Name of Specimen Type of Cell Estimated Size Notes

Spermatogenesis in Multicellular animal

mammalian testes cell

Amoeba Unicellular eukaryote Pink stain

Volvox Colonial organism Different stains

Spirogyra Plant cell Unique shape

Unicellular Colonial Multicellular

Algae and Fungi Parasites Birds and Humans

Cellular features Single-cell Many cells Many cells

Cellular Mostly prokaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotes

classifications and some
eukaryotes
Prokaryote OR
Eukaryote

Cellular structure One cell carries out Individual animals, Cells are specialised
all the functions to Eg. zooids work to perform specific
sustain life together to sustain functions by the
the colony organism

Cellular function Functions are Functions are Functions are

- Obtaining nutrients carried out with the carried out by carried out at
- Exchanging gases
- Removing wastes cell individuals with cellular, tissue, organ
specific roles in the and system level
colony

Microscopic & Microscopic - SA:V Usually macroscopic Macroscopic

Macroscopic limits the size of the Increasing the
cell number of cells
allows for an
increase in body size

Life Span Short lifespan: Long lifespan Long lifespan

- Due to the
high energy
output

Asexual or Sexual Mostly asexual: Mostly asexual Mostly sexual

 - Budding mitosis
- Mitosis - Colonial
- Reproduction reproduction

Reproductive The whole organism Usually, specific Only cells

success is involved zooids are specialised for
responsible for reproduction
reproduction (gametes) will
reproduce

○ Relating the structure of cells and cell specialisation to function

Structural organisation of multicellular organisms:

Organelles
- Membrane-bound compartment or structure in a cell that performs a special
function
- Example: Mitochondria, vacuole
Specialised cells
- Cells that have a specific function
- Example: Root hair cell, lead guard cell
Tissues
- A group of similar cells working together to carry out a specific function in
multicellular organisms
- Example: Muscle tissue, root tissue
Organs
- Two or more tissues that work together to perform one or more specialised
tasks
- Example: Heart, liver, kidneys, flowers, leaves
Systems
- A group of organs that work together to perform a vital task

Cell specialisation and differentiation:

- Specialisation: a specialised function for a cell
- Differentiation: the process where a cell changes from one type to another, typically
an unspecialised cell becoming specialised

Structure relating to function:

 Cell Structure related to function

Red blood cells - Carry oxygen around the body

- Thin outer membrane allows oxygen to diffuse
easily
- Shape increases SA: V which allows oxygen to be
absorbed more efficiently
- No nucleus leaving room for haemoglobin
- Shape allows it to squeeze through vesicles and
thin capillaries

Epidermal cell - Has 2 layers to keep external and internal

environments separate

Xylem cell - Transports water and nutrients from the soil to

stems and leaves
- Provides mechanical support and storage
- Internal hydrophobic surface facilitating water
transport
- Tracheids are hollow and connect to each other to
improve transport efficiency
- Think lignin coated cell walls provide shape and
structure

Phloem cell - Transport of sugars around the plant

- Next to xylem for osmosis of water
- Has a source and sink as transport for substance

Guard cell - Multiple large vacuoles to absorb water

- Multiple chloroplasts for photosynthesis
- One thicker wall for stability and a thinner wall for
differentiation
- Close stomata when they lose potassium ions

Palisade mesophyll cells - Found in the mesophyll of the leaf

- The main function is light absorption
- Multiple chloroplasts for photosynthesis

Root hair cell - Extremely narrow tubes

- Have thin hairs which protrude outwards, allowing
an increase in SA: V for osmosis
- Long and thin to penetrate between soil particles
and prevent harmful organisms from entering the
plant

Cohesion: water molecules stick together because they are attracted to each other due to
their charges
Adhesion: water molecules stick to surfaces

Capillarity: water molecules move up thin tubes (xylem)

● Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate
those functions to cell differentiation and specialisation

Circulatory system - Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues

- Equalises body temperature

Respiratory system - Removes carbon dioxide from the body

- Delivers oxygen to the blood

Excretory system - Performs the breakdown and discharge of wastes in

the body

Digestive system - Processes food for the body to use

- Removes waste from undigested food

● Justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs,

systems and organisms

For multicellular organisms to function effectively and live successfully in order to

reproduce, there needs to be a high level of organisation in the arrangement of their
specialised cells.

Atoms → Molecules → Organelles → Cells → Tissues → Organ Systems → Organisms

Level of Organisation Explanation Example

Atomic level Atoms are the smallest Carbon, Hydrogen,

unit of an element that Oxygen
still maintains the
property of that element

Molecular level Atoms form to combine Water, DNA,

into molecules which can Carbohydrates
have entirely different
properties than the atoms
they contain

Cellular level Cells are the smallest unit Muscle cell, Skin cell,
 of life. Neutron
Cells are enclosed by
membrane or cell wall
and often perform
specific functions

Tissue level Groups of cells with Muscle, Connective

similar functions

Organ level Organs are 2 types of Heart, Liver, Stomach

tissue that work together
to complete a task

Organ system level Group of organs that carry Digestive system,

out a more generalised Circulatory system
set of functions

Organismal level Several organ systems Human

which function together

Human body systems:

Body System Main Structural Features Function

Integumentary System - Hair - Act as a barrier

- Skin - Retains body fluid
- Nails - Regulates body temp

Skeletal System - Bones - Movement

- Tendons - Calcium storage
- Ligaments - Support
- Cartilage - Organ protection

Lymphatic System - Lymph nodes - Removal of excess

- Spleen fluids
- Thymus - Absorption of fatty
acids
- Protection of
immune cells

Respiratory System - Airways - Allows the intake and

- Lungs expel of oxygen and
 - Esophagus carbon dioxide

Muscular System - Muscle - Generation of force

- Muscle fibre for movement
- Blood vessels - Speech
- nerves - Eating

Nervous System - Spinal cord - Allows bodily

- Brain communication
- Nerves

Digestive System - Stomach - Processes food for

- Liver use in the body
- Gallbladder - Removes waste from
- Large intestine undigested food
- Small intestine

Urinary System - Kidneys - Controls water

- Urinary bladder balance in the body
- Removes waste from
the blood and
excretes them

Endocrine System - Pituitary gland - Secretes hormones

- Thyroid gland - Regulates body temp
- Pancreas
- Adrenaline gland
- Testes → male
- Ovaries → female

Circulatory System - Heart - Delivers oxygen and

- Blood vessels nutrients to tissues
- Equalises body temp

Male Reproductive System - Prostate - Produces sex

- Epididymis hormones
- Testes - Delivers gametes to
the female

Female Reproductive - Mammary glands - Produces sex

System - Ovaries hormones and
- Uterus gametes
- Supports embryo
and gametes until
birth
- Produces milk for
infant
Nutrient and Gas Requirements
Inquiry Question: What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements between
autotrophs and heterotrophs?

Distinguishment between autotrophs and heterotrophs:

Autotrophs can produce their own organic compounds from inorganic compounds
surrounding them whereas heterotrophs must consume other organisms for organic
substances for energy.

Autotroph: Can produce its own food using photosynthesis

→ Producers
Heterotroph: Cannot make its own food, therefore derives its food nutrition from
other sources
→ Consumers

● Investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of

materials, for example:
○ Dissected plant materials
○ Microscopic structures
○ Using a range of
imaging
technologies to
determine plant
structure

● Investigate the
function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:
○ Tracing the development and movement of products of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which energy from light converts water and carbon dioxide
molecules into glucose and oxygen. The oxygen is released from the leaves while the energy
contained by the glucose molecules is used for the plant's growth.

● Investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the collection
of primary and secondary data and information, for example:
○ Microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
Plants:
 Leaf epidermis:
- Single-layer of cell that covers the leaves
- Forms a divide between the plant and external environment
Stomata:
- The leaf epidermis is covered with tiny pores, called stomata
- Each stomata has a guard cell on each side
- The stomata allow gases to move into and out of the leaf
- Water vapour escapes through the stomata into the surrounding air
- Stomata and water loss:
- The plant has to balance the need for carbon dioxide (open stomata)
- Against the need to reduce water loss (closed stomata)
- How stomata open and close:
- Guard cells control the diameter of the pore by changing shape
- When guard cells take up water (via osmosis) they swell and become
tight
- This makes the pore wider
- Gain → wider
- When the guard cells lose water they shrink and
become flaccid
- Pores become smaller
- Lose → smaller

Stomata are open in the light and close in the dark

Mammals:
- Gaseous exchange occurs in all animals and
involves the movement of gases between the
internal and external environments by
diffusion across cell membranes
- Oxygen is essential for all cells to carry out
cellular respiration to release energy from the
nutrients they have consumed
- The respiratory system enables the
exchange of gases between an
organism and it's environment

○ Macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals

Fish:
- Need to obtain oxygen in order to remove carbon dioxide
- Water flowing over them ensures maximum oxygen uptake
- As the water is only flowing in one direction the water can enter and flow over the
gills and then leave via the gill slit
Insects:
- Do not have lungs or capillaries
- Spiracles → breathing pores
- Tracheal tubes

● Interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, Claims

and conclusions that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models
about the structure and function of plants, including but not limited to:

○ Photosynthesis
- Jan Baptista van Helmont
- An incorrect conclusion that water makes plants grow, not water
- John Priestly
- Jan Ingenhousz
- Jean Senebier

○ Transpiration-cohesion-tension theory

- Water in the xylem is pulled upwards

- Creates negative pressure: tension
- Tension extends from leaves to roots
- Transpiration’s effect on water = straw

● Trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian

digestive system, including:
○ Physical digestion
 - Begins in the mouth when teeth break food by cutting or tearing food

○ Chemical digestion
- Process of using digestive enzymes to chemically break down the larger, complex
molecules in food

○ Absorption of nutrients, minerals and water

- Mainly occurs in the jejunum section of the small intestine
- Products diffuse or use active transport through villi, which lines the intestinal wall
- Glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the capillaries

○ Elimination of solid waste

- Faeces are formed and stored in the rectum before being passed out of the body
through the anus.

● Compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs

Nutrient/ Gas Autotroph Heterotroph

Requirement

Oxygen gas Diffuses into plant across the Diffuses through the
cell surface respiratory surface

Carbon dioxide gas Diffuses into the plant Not required

Water Diffuses into the root Ingested into the digestive

system

Glucose Produced by photosynthesis Ingested into the digestive

system as either simple or
complex carbohydrates, and
absorbed into the bloodstream

Lipids/ proteins Produced by the plant from Ingested into the digestive
glucose and mineral ions system and absorbed into the
bloodstream as amino acids,
fatty acids or glycerol

Mineral ions Move into the plant through the Ingested into the digestive
roots by diffusion and active system and absorbed into the
transport bloodstream

Transport
Inquiry Question: How does the composition of the transport medium change as it moves
around an organism?
● Investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and
components using physical and digital models, including but not limited to:
○ Macroscopic structures in plants and animals
○ Microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plants
vascular system
Xylem:
- Main carriageway for transporting water through the plant
- It is made of specialised xylem tissue
- Water enters the root system via osmosis
Phloem:
- Phloem is the vessel that transports products of photosynthesis via active transport
- Phloem consists of two types of living cells;

Companion cells

- Smaller cells found along the side of the sieve tube cells
- Contain nucleus, mitochondria, vacuoles and other cell organelles
- Control the activities of sieve tube cells

Sieve tube cells

- Long and thin with large pores through the cell wall at either end
- No nuclei, mitochondria or vacuole
- Arranged end to end in sieve tubes

● Investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of
plants and animals
 ● Compare the structure and function of Transport systems in animals and plants,
including but not limited to:
○ Vascular systems in plants and animals
○ Opened and closed transport systems in animals

Comparing the roles of respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems:

Similarities

- All closed systems (involving ducts tubes and containers)

- Controlled systems (all act to maintain homeostasis)
- Homeostasis → the ability to maintain internal stability in organisms
- This includes; the control of body temperature, carbon dioxide,
oxygen hormones and blood pressure
- All regulate against external changes
- Water/ salt concentrations
- Body temperature
- Transports → fluids

Respiratory System Circulatory System Excretory System

Differences - Bellows pump - Involves pump - Pressure

- Involves air/fluid - Involves fluid - Involves fluid
- Transports gas plasma - Urea
- Exchanges gas - Transport cells - Situated in the
- Situated in the - Exchanges lower body
upper body nutrients - Sweat
- Situated
throughout the
body

Vascular system and the human heart:

MODULE 3: BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Outcomes
- Develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation
- designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data
and information
- Communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a
specific audience or purpose
- Describes biological diversity by explaining the relationships between a range of
organisms in terms of specialisation for selected habitats and evolution of species

Content Focus
Biodiversity is important to balance the earth's ecosystems. biodiversity can be effected
slowly or quickly over time by natural selective pressures. human impact can also affect
biodiversity over a shorter time period. in this module, students learn about the theory of
evolution by natural selection and the effect of various selective pressures.

Monitoring biodiversity is key to being able to predict future change. Monitoring, including the
monitoring abiotic factors in the environment, enables ecologists to design strategies to
reduce the effects of adverse biological change. Students investigate the adaptations of
organisms that increase the organisms ability to survive in their environment.

Content
Effects of the Environment on Organisms
Inquiry Question: How do environmental pressures promote a change in species diversity
and abundance?
● Predict the effects of selection pressures on organisms in ecosystems, including:
Selection pressures:
Biotic and abiotic factors in an organism’s environment can affect behaviour, survival and
reproduction
 - Population changes:
- Natality: births or geminations
- Immigration: organisms moving into a population from another population
- Emigration: organisms moving out of a population

Abundance: the number of individuals per unit area. Can be measured through quadrats
Distribution: the spread of a population over space

○ Biotic factors
Non-living components of an environment such as; temperature, light and
chemical components

○ Abiotic factors
Living components of an environment such as; bacteria, fungi, plants and
animals
- Dynamic → tide, water, wind
- Physical → light, temperature, humidity, rainfall
- Chemical → salinity, nutrients, pH

In ecosystems, organisms interact and depend on one another for survival.

Individual: a single organism such as one animal, plant, fungus or unicellular organism
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce and produce fertile offspring
Population: a group of individuals of the same species that live together
Community: an ecological group of different species living together and interacting with
each other
Biomes: a group of communities that have similar structures and habitats extending over a
large area system formed by communities of organisms interacting with one another and
their surroundings
Biosphere: largest and most complex ecosystem, a sum of all ecosystems on Earth

● Investigate changes in a population of organisms due to selection pressures over

time, for example:
○ Cane toads in Australia
- Deliberately introduced to control cane beetle populations
- Quickly spread;
- Eat a wide range of food
- No known predators
- No set breeding time
- Contain toxins that kill native animals
 ○ Prickly pear distribution in Australia
- Introduced from Spain for the dye industry
- Whenever its branches come into contact with soil it grows
- Allowed the plant to grow rapidly
- Introduction of a moth to reduce numbers

Adaptations
Inquiry Question: How do adaptations increase the organism’s ability to survive?
● Conduct practical investigations, individually or in teams, or use secondary sources
to examine the adaptations of organisms that increase their ability to survive in their
environment, including:

Adaptations: characteristic that an organism inherits that makes them more suited to their
environment. This occurs as a result of selection pressures or environmental factors to
increase the chances of survival and reproduction

○ Structural adaptations
Modifications of specific structures that give an organism an advantage in a particular
environment
- SA: V
- Vascular body parts

○ Physiological adaptations
Affect functioning at different levels. Can affect biochemical reactions in organelles or
physiological functions at a whole organism level
- Camoflague
- Evaporative cooling
 ○ Behavioural adaptations
Actions that only an organism takes to improve survival or reproduction
- Burrowing
- Migration

● Investigate, through secondary sources, the observations and collection of data that
were obtained by Charles Darwin to support the theory of evolution by natural
selection, for example:

Natural selection:
The process by which organisms that are best suited to their environment reproduce,
passing on their favourable traits, characteristics include;
- Organisms produce more offspring that can survive
- Variation occurs amongst species
- Variations are passed on to offspring
- Some variations help individuals survive
- Over time, favourable traits cause a population to change

○ Finches of the Galapagos Islands

- Darwin observed small ground finches on the Galapagos Islands and collected the
specimens that were living on each of the islands
- Notes that the finches had naturally occurring variation in, for example; beak size,
colour and leg length
- The descendants of these birds gradually populated other islands, each of which had
different environmental conditions
- The finches which were not adapted to the environmental conditions died out
 ○ Australian flora and fauna

Darwin’s Observations How Darwin's observation related to his

theory of evolution by natural selection

Magpies and crows are similar to the jackdaws
in England, but obviously belonging to different
species
The potoroo (rat-kangaroo) is similar to the
rabbit in England
The potoroo is a miniature kangaroo the size of
a European rabbit, behaving somewhat like a
rabbit, darting about in the undergrowth
The platypus is similar to water rats
Darwin's observations of birds, marsupials and
monotreme mammals in Australia revealed the
similarities with European mammals that lived in
similar environments.
This led to the idea that organisms could evolve
to become similar
- (convergent evolution)
If organisms live in similar habitats, similar
variations that they process would be favoured
by natural selection to enable them to survive
and breed in those conditions.
- These favourable variations would then
be passed onto the next generation

Vegetation: Darwin describes eucalyptus, “ the
nearly level country is covered with thin scrubby
trees, bespeaking the curse of sterility”.
In Darwin's observations of plant life in Sydney,
he made the link between the harsh environment
and the adaptations observed in the vegetation.
he also mentions that many of the trees in
Australia and other Southern continents are
Evergreen as opposed to those in the Northern
Hemisphere

Theory of evolution by natural selection

Inquiry Question: What is the relationship between Evolution and biodiversity?
● Explain biological diversity in terms of the theory of evolution by natural selection by
examining the changes in and biodiversification of life since it first appeared on the
Earth

Biological diversity and the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection:

- Biological diversity refers to the variety of all forms of life on earth
- Diversity within a population is what allows it to adapt to changes within the
environment

Biodiversity type Definition

Genetic Diversity Total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make-up of a

species

Species Diversity Measure of the diversity of different species in an ecological

 community

Ecological Diversity Variation of different ecosystems found in a region

Population change and allele frequencies:

Cause of population change description of the Factor example

Gene flow Exchange of alleles between Blue-eyed people from

populations Sweden migrate to a small
town in Mexico
When migrating animals or
dispersed seeds reproduce
in a new location

Genetic drift Changes in allele frequency American bison

in a population/ gene pool

Can change the distribution

and proportion of alleles

Founder effect When a population of Amish people in

individuals are isolated and Pennsylvania have high
for new population incidences of polydactyly

Genetic bottleneck When a large population is Hunting and poaching of

dramatically reduced in size many of the African
thereby reducing its genetic elephants
variation

● Analyse how an accumulation of microevolutionary changes can drive evolutionary

changes and speciation over time, for example:

Microevolution:
- Small-scale changes occurring within a population
Macroevolution:
- The evolution of groups larger than species
- What is observed when looking at the history of life on Earth

○ Evolution of the horse

- Over 50 million years ago the horse evolved from a dog-sized, forest-dwelling animal
- Fossils show changes in body size, number of teeth and foot shape
- The first horses were 25-50m tall with a long tail, short legs, snout and back
- Ate fruits and soft plants
 - Evolved due to drier climate, shrinking forests and growth of more grass

○ Evolution of the platypus

- The platypuses line of evolution is very ancient
- Has many genes in common with both reptiles and birds

● Explain, using examples, how Darwin and Wallace's theory of evolution by natural
selection accounts for:
○ Convergent evolution
Evolution through natural selection of similar features in unrelated organisms
- Example; dolphins and sharks

○ Divergent evolution
Separated populations diverge, whether that be by random factors such as genetic drift or
natural selection

● Explain how punctuated equilibrium is different from the gradual process of natural
selection
- Punctuated equilibrium → evolution occurs in spurts of rapid change with long periods of
no change
- Gradual process → slow, gradual change, occurring in small periodic changes in the gene
pool

Evolution - the Evidence

Inquiry Question: What is the evidence that supports the theory of evolution by natural
selection?
● Investigate, using secondary sources, evidence in support of Darwin and Wallace's
Theory of Evolution by natural selection, including but not limited to:
○ Biochemical evidence, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology and
biogeography

Evidence type Description Example

Biochemical evidence Analysis and comparison at Humans and chimps

 the molecular level

Comparative anatomy Comparison of anatomical Pentadactyl limb

features

Comparative embryology Comparison of embryos

Biogeography Comparison of the

geographical distribution of
organisms

Palaeontology Study of fossils

○ Techniques used to date fossils and the evidence produced

- Palaeontology is the study of fossils
- Provides direct evidence

Fossil evidence:
Relative dating:
- Relies on the assumption that that fossils found higher up in rock strata are
younger than the lower fossils

Absolute dating/radiometric dating:

- The actual age of the specimen is determined by using the radioactive
elements which are presented in the specimen

● Explain modern-day examples that demonstrate evolutionary change, for example:

○ The cane toad
- Introduced species
- Kills any wildlife it chooses to feed on

○ Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria

- Some strands of bacteria randomly become resistant to modern antibiotics
- These strands then reproduce and become more resistant
- This is the reason for the recent observation of superbugs