ENG 023

Metrology and Calibration

Topic 2
Error Propagation

Sayfa 1
Error Propagation (=Hata Birikimi)
In a typical experiment, one is seldom interested in taking
data of a single quantity. More often, the data are
processed through multiplication, addition or other
functional manipulation to get final result. Experimental
measurements have uncertainties due to measurement
limitations which propagate to the combination of
variables in a function.

In statistical data analysis, the propagation of error (or

propagation of uncertainty) is the effect of measurement
uncertainties (or errors) on the uncertainty of a function
based on them.
Sayfa 2
Addition or Subtraction
Suppose you measure some quantities a, b, c, … with
uncertainties δa, δb,δc,… Now you want to calculate
some other quantity Q which depends on a and b and so
forth. What is the uncertainty in Q?
a,b,c,… are independent measurement,i.e, they do not
affect each other

If Q is some combination of sums and differences, i.e

Sayfa 3
then

Sayfa 4
Example
§  Suppose you measure the height H of a door and get 2.00 ±
0.03 m. The door has a knob which is a height h=0.88 ± 0.04
m from bottom of the door. Then the distance from the
doorknob to the top of the door is Q=H-h = 1.12 m What is
the uncertainty in Q ?

Sayfa 5
Multiplication and Division
§  If

§  Then

Sayfa 6
Example
§  A bird files a distance d = 120 ±3 m during a time t =
20.0 ± 1.2 s. What is the average speed of the bird with
uncertainty?

Sayfa 7
If q = f(x) for some function f(), then

! q = f '(x) ! x

Sayfa 8
The volume is 8.00 ± 0.24 cm3

Sayfa 9
General Formula for Error Propagation

Sayfa 10
Example

Sayfa 11
Sayfa 12
Sayfa 13
Example

Suppose we wish to calculate the average speed

(displacement/time) of an object. Assume the displacement is
measured as x = 22.2 ± 0.5 cm during the time interval
t = 9.0 ± 0.1 s . What is the speed of the object and its
uncertainty?

Answer:

v = 2.467(62) cm/s

Sayfa 14
 Uncertainties for additive Functions

Here w symbolizes uncertainty

Sayfa 15
Uncertainties for Product Functions
If Result function R takes the form of a product of the
respective primary variables, it can be expressed as

Sayfa 16
Example

Sayfa 17
Solution

Sayfa 18
Remember that equation

Sayfa 19
Example
§  A flowmeter is used to measure the flow of air at low
velocities. The relation describing the flow rate is

Calculate the percent uncertainty in the mass flow rate for

the following conditions:

Sayfa 20
§  C= empirical discharge
coefficient
§  A = flow area
§  p1 and p2= upstream and
downstream pressures,
respectively
§  T1 = upstream temperature
§  R = gas constant of air

Sayfa 21
Solution
§  In this example, the flowrate is a function of severable variables, each
subject to uncertainty
§ 

Sayfa 22
2009 Sayfa 23
Statistical & Systematical Errors
Quote statistical and systematic errors separately if both
of them are known.

For example:

9.81 ± 0.04 (stat.) ± 0.10 (syst.) m/s 2

Total Error: (0.04)2 + (0.10)2 = 0.11 m/s2

9.81 ± 0.11 m/s 2

Sayfa 24
How to compare Experiment and Prediction
In most lab experiments, the result you obtain can be
compared directly with a theoretical expectation or a ‘book
value’. The basic idea is to subtract the book value from your
value.
Suppose that the accepted value is 0.0 (zero).
* If your measurement is 1.3 ± 1.4
the results are in good aggrement since 1.3/1.4 = 0.93 < 1

* If your measurement is 1.3 ± 0.8

the results are consistent since 1.3/0.8 = 1.63 < 2

* If your measurement is 1.3 ± 0.3

there is a problem! since 1.3/0.3 = 4.33 > 3

Sayfa 25
The Two Ways to Estimate Uncertainties

§  Type A evaluations - uncertainty estimates using

statistics (usually from repeated readings)

§  Type B evaluations - uncertainty estimates from any

other information. This could be information from past
experience of the measurements, from calibration
certificates, manufacturer’s specifications, from
calculations, from published information, and from
common sense.

Sayfa 26
Mean and Standard Deviation
For a set of N measurements {x1, x2, x3, ..., xN }:
N
1
The arithmetic mean: x=
N
∑x
i =1
i (1)

1 N
The standard deviation: σ= ∑
N − 1 i =1
( xi − x ) 2
(2)

σ
The standard error: σE = (3)
N
Sayfa 27
§  Note that the square of the standard deviation is known
as variance.
Variance ≡ σ 2

§  Final result obtained from this kind of measurement

should be reported in the form of:

x ±σ E

Sayfa 28
Example
Consider the data of 10 different measurements for the mass
density in g/cm3 of a liquid.

d = { 1.10, 1.12, 1.09, 1.09, 1.07, 1.14, 1.11, 1.16, 1.07, 1.08}

Sayfa 29
In general, if x1, x2, …, xn are independent variables
having associated errors (standard deviations)
σ1, σ2, …, σn
then the standard deviation for any quantity of the form
f = f (x1, x2, …, xn)
derived from these errors can be calculated from:

(5)

Sayfa 30
Errors of simple functions

Sayfa 31
Combining Results of Independent Experiments
Consider we have n independent experiments with results
xi and errors σi (i = 1, … ,n).

We can combine the results from each experiment to form

a more accurate result. For this, a weighted sum is
performed where experiments with smaller errors
contribute more to the combined result.

Sayfa 32
The statistically correct way to combine independent
results is as follows:

∑ x /σ i i
2
σ =
1
x= i =1 n (6)
∑1 / σ
n 2
∑ i
1 /
i =1
σ 2
i =1
i

Sayfa 33
Example
If we have two measurements 1.5±0.2 and 1.70±0.05, A
number of techniques for combining data to extract the best
possible result exist, some of them very complicated. Now, We
shall consider only two simple cases.

Sayfa 34
Example
Given three independent the measurements for the
gravitational acceleration data:

9.77 ± 0.14 , 9.82 ± 0.10 , 9.86 ± 0.20 m/s2

Find the combined result of g.

Answer: g = 9.811(75) m/s 2

Sayfa 35
Questions
1.  By measuring yourself with 10
different rulers, you obtain the
estimates of your height.
(a) Which of these is the best estimate
of your height?

(b) Use Eqn. (1), (2) and (3),

without considering errors,
calculate the mean height and
standard error of the data.

(c) Use Eqn (6), calculate the height and its standard deviation
by combining these 10 measurements.

Sayfa 36
2.  Determine the distance between the points A and B.
A(0.0 ± 0.2 cm, 0.0 ± 0.3 cm)
B(3.0 ± 0.3 cm, 4.0 ± 0.2 cm)
3.  Suppose that x = 2.0 ± 0.2 y = 3.0 ± 0.6 z = 4.52 ± 0.02
Find w = x + y - z and its uncertainty.

4.  A resistance R is connected in a circuit as shown in figure.

Calculate power in the resistor and its uncertainty, if

R = 10 Ω ± 1%
V = 100 V ± 1%
I = 10 A ± 1%
Sayfa 37
5.  The resistance of a certain size of copper wire is given as

R = R0 [1 + α (T − 20)]
where
R0 is the resistance at 20 oC,
alpha is the temperature coefficient of resistance and
T is the resistance of the wire.

Calculate the resistance (R) of the wire and its uncertainty for:
R0 = 6.00 ± 0.02 Ω
α = (4.00 ± 0.04) ×10-3 oC −1
T = 30 ± 1 oC

Sayfa 38
6.  Two resistors R1 and R2 are to be connected in series and
parallel. The values of the resistances are
R1 = 100.0 ± 0.3 Ω, R2 = 50.0 ± 0.1 Ω
Calculate the value and uncertainty in the combined
resistance for both series and parallel arrangements.

7.  Figure shows a right angle triangle.

Find the area of the triangle and its uncertainty for

θ = 37.0o ± 0.4 o
x x = 3.0 ± 0.2 m
θ

Sayfa 39
8.  Refractive index (n) of a glass is calculated by using Snell’s
law:
sin θ1
n = nAIR
sin θ 2

where measured values and their estimated errors are:

nAIR = 1 θ1 = 61± 1 o
θ 2 = 36 ± 1
o

Calculate the refractive index of the glass and its uncertainty.

Sayfa 40
9.  Four independent measurements for the speed of light (c)
are given by:

c1 = 299788± 30 km/sec
c2 = 299796 ± 4 km/sec
c3 = 299792 ± 2 km/sec
c4 = 299792.5 ± 0.1 km/sec

Calculate the combined value of the speed of light and

combined uncertainty.

Sayfa 41
10. Compare the two independent measurements for the speed
of light (c).

c1 = 299796 ± 4 km/sec
c2 = 299792 ± 2 km/sec

Compute how many error bars first measurement

differ from the second measurement.
Answer: 0.89
Δc 4.00
Δc = | c1 − c2 | = 4.00 km/sec = = 0.89
σ c 4.47
σ c = σ12 + σ 22 = 4.47 km/sec

Sayfa 42