STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND SOFTWARE
APPLICATION
Statistics – is the science of conducting studies to
collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw
conclusions from data.
- is used in almost all fields of human
endeavor.
- it is used to analyze the results of surveys and
as a tool in scientific research to make
decisions based on controlled experiments.
Other uses of statistics include operations
research, quality control, estimation, and
prediction.
Variable – is a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values.
Random Variables – whose values are determined
by chance.
- is a variable that is used to quantify the
outcome of a random experiment.
Data Set – a collection of data values.
Data Value or a Datum – each value in the data set.
TWO MAIN AREAS OF STATISTICS
1. Descriptive Statistics – are numbers that are
used to summarize and describe data. The
word “data” refers to the information that
has been collected from an experiment, a
survey, a historical record, etc.
2. Inferential Statistics – the sample is a set of
data taken from the population to represent
the population. Probability distributions,
hypothesis testing, correlation testing and
regression analysis all fall under the category
of inferential statistics.
Population – consists of all subjects (human or
otherwise) that are being studied.
Sample – is a group of subjects selected from a
population.
TYPES OF DATA
1. Qualitative Data – data type that consists of
descriptive statements.
- Text-based
- Statistical analysis is harder
- Collected using interviews, written
documents, observations
- Verbal and written feedback
- Narrative story
o First-hand (direct experience)
o Second-hand (telling someone
else)
o Third-hand (outside story teller)
- Visual images, drawings, or models
- Experiential sensations
- Descriptions of: color; texture;
smells; tastes; appearance; beauty;
feelings; intuition; sensations;
choices; values; beliefs
2. Quantitative Data – data type that can be
measured and expressed numerically.
- Number-based
- Statistical analysis is easier
- Collected using surveys,
observations, experiments and
interviews
- Money; time; speed; movement;
height; length; area; volume; weight;
temperature; humidity; pressure;
sound level; categories (age, gender,
occupation); positioning; status
FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Level – data that is classified into
categories and cannot be arranged in any
particular order.
- Examples: eye color, gender,
religious affiliation
2. Interval Level – similar to the ordinal level,
with the additional property that meaningful
amounts of differences between data values
can be determined. There is no natural zero
point.
- Example: temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale
3. Ordinal Level – data arranged in some order,
but the differences between data values
cannot be determined or are meaningless.
- Example: during a taste test of 4 soft
drinks, Mellow Yellow was ranked
number 1, Sprite number 2, Seven-up
 number 3, and Orange Crush number
4.
4. Ratio Level – the interval level with an
inherent zero starting point. Differences and
ratios are meaningful for this level of
measurement.
- Examples: monthly income of
surgeons, or distance traveled by
manufacturer’s representatives per
month.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. Nominal Variables – it represents categories
that cannot be ordered in any way.
- It is a variable with no quantitative
value.
- It has two or more categories but does
not imply ordering of cases
- Examples: eye color, business type,
religion, political affiliation, gender,
race
2. Interval Variables – it has values that lie
along an evenly dispersed range of numbers.
- It is a measurement where the
difference between two values does
have meaning.
- Examples: temperature, time IQ test
3. Ordinal Variables – it represents categories
that can be ordered from greatest to smallest.
- This variable has two or more
categories which can be ranked.
- Includes like scale: 1 = very poor, 2 =
poor, 3 = fair, 4 = good, 5 = excellent
- Examples: socio economic status;
educational level: 1 = high school
graduate, 2 = college undergraduate,
3 = master’s degree graduate, 4 =
doctorate degree graduate; income
brackets
DATA COLLECTION
➢ Qualitative Data Collection
o Interviews
o Surveys
o Group Discussions
o Observations
➢ Quantitative Data Collection
o Probability Sampling
o Interviews
o Surveys & Questionnaire
o Observations
o Document Review
Phone Surveys
- High confidence
- Need to hire an agency
Online Surveys
- Self-manage
- Data accuracy
- Need internet
In-person Interviews
- In-depth
- Time consuming
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Probability Sampling – utilizes random
sampling techniques to create a sample. This
group of sampling methods give all the
members of a population equal chances of
being selected.
a. Simple Random Sampling – every
individual has an equal and
independent chance of being selected
from the population. Lottery Method
b. Cluster Sampling – the entire
population is divided into clusters and
the sample is chosen at random.
c. Systematic Sampling Technique –
the sampling starts by selecting an
element from the list at random and
then every (k) th element in the frame
is selected. Where (k) is the sampling
interval, n is the sample size, N is the
population size. k = N/n
d. Stratified Random Sampling –
population is divided into two or more
groups called “strata”, according to
some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income,
and subsamples are randomly
selected from each strata. Elements
 within each strata are homogeneous
but are heterogeneous across strata.
2. Non-probability Sampling – samples are
collected in a way that does not give all the
units in the population equal chances of being
selected. It does not involve random selection
at all.
a. Convenience Sampling – also
referred to as accidental or incidental
sampling.
- involves choosing readily
available people or objects for
study.
- this probably the most frequently
used sampling method
- saves time and money
- use results that are easy to get
b. Purposive Sampling (Judgmental
Sampling) – the researchers choose
the sample based on who they think
would be appropriate for the study.
- this is used primarily when there
is a limited number of people that
have expertise in the area being
researched
- a researcher may have a specific
group in mind
- it may not be possible to specify
the population and may not
represent the population as
whole
c. Snowball Sampling – choosing the
participants to find more participants
for making a sample group
- mostly researchers used this
sampling technique where
participants are difficult to locate
in a general participation
d. Quota Sampling – it is a procedure
that restricts the selection of the
sample by controlling the numbers of
respondents by one or more criterion
- the restriction generally involves
quotas regarding respondent’s
demographic characteristics,
specific attitudes, or specific
behaviors
- also viewed as a two-stage
restricted judgement sampling.
In the first stage restricted
categories are built as discussed
above and in the second stage
respondents are selected on the
basis of convenience of
judgement of the researchers.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
ORGANIZING DATA
Data organization – is a process of organizing raw
data, by classifying them into different categories.
This raw data includes the observations of variables.
Raw data – is the data that is collected from a source,
but in its initial state. It has not yet been processed —
or cleaned, organized, and visually presented.
A frequency distribution is the organization of raw
data in table form, using classes and frequencies.
TWO TYPES OF FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS:
1. Categorical Frequency Distribution – is
used for the data that can be placed in specific
categories, such as nominal or ordinal level
data.
2. Grouped Frequency Distribution – when
the range of data is large, the data must be
grouped into classes that are more than one
unit of width.
 Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value
 Width = Range/Number of Classes
Cumulative Frequency Distribution – is a
distribution that shows the number of data values less
than or equal to a specific value (usually an upper
boundary).
GRAPHS
3 MOST FREQUENTLY USED GRAPHS IN
RESEARCH
1. Histogram – is a graph that displays the data
by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the
frequency of a class is 0) of various heights
to represent the frequencies of the classes.
2. Frequency Polygon – is a graph that displays
the data by using lines that connect points
plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of
the classes. The frequencies are represented
by the heights of the points.
3. Cumulative Frequency Graph (Ogive) –
third type of graph that can be used to
represents the cumulative frequencies for the
classes.
Cumulative Frequency – is the sum of frequencies
accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in
the distribution.

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