Statistics(Mid-terms!
)
Statistics - is the science of
collecting, organizing, summarizing,
and analyzing information to draw
conclusions or answer questions.
Understanding Process of Statistics
1. Identify the research objective
2. Collect the information needed to
answer the questions.
3. Organize and summarize the
information.
4. Draw conclusion from the
information.
 Universe - is the set of all entities
under study.
 Population - is the set of all possible
values of the variable.
 Individual - is a person or object
that is a member of the population
being studied.
 Sample - is the subset of the
universe or the population.
Descriptive statistics
>Describe the information collected
through numerical measurements,
charts, graphs, and tables.
Inferential statistics
>Uses methods that takes results
obtained from a sample, extends them
to the population, and measures the
reliability of the result.
Variables - the characteristics
that differentiate every individual
within the population/sample.
Variables can be classified into two
groups:
1.Qualitative variables
a word or a code that represents a
class or category.
2.Quantitative variables
numerical values representing an
amount or quantity.
Quantitative variables may be further
classified into:
Discrete variable - is a quantitative
variable that either a finite number of
possible values or a countable number
of possible values.
Continuous variable - is a quantitative
variable that has an infinite number of
possible values that are not countable.
Levels of Measurement:
Ratio - Identify, order, represent equal
distances between scores values, and
have an absolute zero point.
Interval - Identify, have ordered values,
and have the additional property of
equal distances or intervals between
scale.
Ordinal - Identify, name, classify, or
categorize, objects or events but have
an additional property of a logical or
natural order to the categories or
values.
Nominal - Identify, name, classify, or
categorize objects or events.
Data collection - is the process of
gathering and measuring information
on variables of interest.
Steps in Data Gathering
1. Set the objectives for collecting data.
2. Determine the data needed based on
the set objectives.
3. Determine the method to be used in
data gathering and define the
comprehensive data collection points.
4. Design data gathering forms to be
used.
5. Collect data.
Sources of Data
>Primary Data
>Secondary Data
The primary data can be collected by the
following five methods.
1. Direct personal interviews.
2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method.
3. A focus group
4. Experiment
5. Observation
Method of Collecting Secondary Data
Published report on newspaper and
periodicals
Financial Data reported in annual
reports
Records maintained by the institution
Internal reports of the government
departments
Information from official publications.
Sample Size Determination
-Typically denoted by n and it is
always a positive integer.
Level of Precision
-Also called sampling error, the
level of precision, is the range in which
the true value of the population is
estimated to be.
Confidence Interval
-It is a statistical measure of the
number of times out of 100 that results
can be expected to be within a specified
range.
Degree of Variability
-Depending upon the target
population and attributes under
consideration, the degree of variability
varies considerably.
Estimating the Mean or Average
Z is the z-score corresponding to level
of confidence
e is the level of precision.
The formula for the sample
standard deviation s is
Estimating Proportion (Infinite
Population)
Where:
Z is the z-score corresponding to level
of confidence
e is the level of precision. -Ethical Considerations
P is population proportion
Two Type of Samples
Slovin’s Formula (Simplified form
1. Probability Sample
of Proportions for finite
population) 2. Non - Probability Sample

Sampling Frame
-complete listing of the elements of
the universe.
Where:
N is the total population Probability Samples
e is the level of precision. • The probabilities of selection are
known.
Sampling technique/Sampling • They are generally referred to as
random samples.
Strategies
• They allow drawing of valid
-It is a plan you set forth to be sure
generalizations about the
that the sample you use in your
universe/population
research study represents the
population from which you drew your
sample. Non-Probability Samples

Sampling Frame • Samples are obtained

-This is the list of the elements in haphazardly, selected purposively or
your population and from this your are taken as
sample is drawn. volunteers.
• The probabilities of selection are
unknown.
Sampling Bias
• They should not be used for
-This involves problems in your
statistical inference.
sampling, which reveals that your
sample is not representative of your
population. Sampling Procedure

• Identify the population.

Advantage of Sampling Over
Complete Enumeration • Determine if population is accessible.

-Less Labor • Select a sampling method.

-Reduced Cost • Choose a sample that is

representative of the population.
-Greater Speed
• Ask the question, can I generalize to
-Greater Efficiency and Accuracy the general population from the
accessible population?
-Greater Scope

-Convenience
Basic Sampling Technique of
Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling
-Assigns equal probabilities of
selection to each possible sample.
• Systematic Random Sampling
-It is obtained by selecting every kth
individual from the population.
• Stratified Random Sampling
-It is obtained by separating the
population into non-overlapping groups
called strata and then obtaining a
simple random sample from each
stratum.
• Cluster Sampling
-You take the sample from naturally
occurring groups in your population.
• Multi-stage Sampling
-Selection of the sample is done in
two or more steps or stages, with
sampling units varying in each stage.
Basic Sampling Technique of
Non-Probability Sampling
• Accidental Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Judgement Sampling
The three main forms of
presentation of data are:
Textual Presentation - All the data is
presented in the form of text, phrases,
or paragraphs.
Tabular Presentation - a systematic
and logical arrangement of data in the
form of Rows and Columns with respect
to the characteristics of data.
Graphical Presentation - It is the most
effective way to present results in a
study since it shows the statistical
values and relationship in a
pictorial or diagram form.
To construct the frequency distribution using
excel use the command:
=frequency(data_array,bins_array)
Then Ctrl → Shift → Enter
{=frequency(data_array,bins_array)}
Determining the Class Width
Where:
cw is the class width
nc is the number of classes
Kinds of Graph:
>Bar Graph
It is use to organize discrete data.
>Histogram
It is a graph used to present quantitative
data, is similar to the bar graph.
>Pie Chart
It is a circle divided into sectors. Each
sector represents a category of data.The
area of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of the category.
>Line Graph Descriptive measures that split the
Line segments are then drawn connecting ordered data into ten equal parts.
the points. It is use to organize continuous
data. 3. Percentiles
Descriptive measures that split the
Measures of Central Tendency
ordered data into 100 equal parts.
1. Mean
It is the sum of the data values
divided by the number of data values.

2. Median
It is the “middle observation” when
the data set is sorted (in either
increasing or decreasing order).

3. Mode
It is the most frequently occurring
value in a list of data.

Measures of Dispersion

1. Range
difference between the largest
and the smallest observations or items
in a set of data.

2.Standard Deviation
a measure of how far away items
in a data set are from the mean.

3.Variance
It represents all data points in a set
and is calculated by averaging the
squared deviation of each mean.

Measures of Relative Position

Quantiles are statistics that describe

various subdivisions of a frequency
distribution into equal proportions.

Three special Quantiles:

1. Quartiles
Descriptive measures that split the
ordered data into four quarters.

2. Deciles