NOTE: Inference is the process of drawing
Statistics and Probability
Lesson 1: Introduction to Statistics
Why study statistics?
1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make
many decisions that affect our lives
3. No matter what your career, you will
make professional decisions that involve
data. An understanding of statistical
methods will help you make these
decisions effectively
Applications Of Statistical Concepts In
The Business World
 Finance – correlation and regression,
index numbers, time series analysis
 Marketing – hypothesis testing, chi-
square tests, nonparametric statistics
 Personel – hypothesis testing, chi-square
tests, nonparametric tests
 Operating management – hypothesis
testing, estimation, analysis of variance,
time series analysis
Statistics
 The science of collectioning, organizing,
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting
data to assist in making more effective
decisions.
 Statistical analysis – used to manipulate
summarize, and investigate data, so that
useful decision-making information
results.
Types of statistics
 Descriptive statistics – Methods of
organizing, summarizing, and presenting
data in an informative way.
 Inferential statistics – The methods
used to determine something about a
population on the basis of a sample
 Population –The entire set of
individuals or objects of interest or
the measurements obtained from all
individuals or objects of interest
 Sample – A portion, or part, of the
population of interest
Inferential Statistics
 Estimation
e.g., Estimate the population mean weight
using the sample mean weight
 Hypothesis testing
e.g., Test the claim that the population mean
weight is 70 kg
conclusions or making decisions about a
population based on sample results
Sampling
a sample should have the same
characteristics as the population it is
representing.
Sampling can be:
 with replacement: a member of the
population may be chosen more than
once (picking the candy from the
bowl)
 without replacement: a member of
the population may be chosen only
once (lottery ticket)
Sampling methods can be:
 random - each member of the
population has an equal chance of
being selected
 nonrandom
The actual process of sampling causes
sampling errors. For example, the sample
may not be large enough or representative of
the population. Factors not related to the
sampling process cause nonsampling errors.
A defective counting device can cause a
nonsampling error.
Random Sampling Methods
 Simple random sample (each sample of
the same size has an equal chance of
being selected)
 Stratified sample (divide the population
into groups called strata and then take a
sample from each stratum)
 Cluster sample (divide the population
into strata and then randomly select
some of the strata. All the members from
these strata are in the cluster sample.)
 Systematic sample (randomly select a
starting point and take every n-th piece
of data from a listing of the population)
Descriptive Statistics
 Collect data
e.g., Survey
 Present data
e.g., Tables and graphs
 Summarize data
X
e.g., Sample mean = Σ i
n
Data
 Data is the body of information or
observations being considered by the
researcher. When the data is processed,
 information, which is the basis for the
decision making is produced.
 Variable is used to define certain
observable values or characteristics. It is
called variable since the characteristics
vary from one another. The values of the
variable are the possible observable
values or characteristics of the variable.
These values are the data to be
processed.
Statistical Data
 The collection of data that are relevant to
the problem being studied is commonly
the most difficult, expensive, and time-
consuming part of the entire research
project.
 Statistical data are usually obtained by
counting or measuring items.
 Primary data are collected
specifically for the analysis desired
 Secondary data have already been
compiled and are available for
statistical analysis
 A variable is an item of interest that can
take on many different numerical values.
 A constant has a fixed numerical value.
Data (According to Nature)
Statistical data are usually obtained by
counting or measuring items. Most data can
be put into the following categories:
 Qualitative or Categorical- data are
measurements that each fail into one
of several categories. (hair color,
ethnic groups and other attributes of
the population)
 Quantitative or Numerical - data are
observations that are measured on a
numerical scale (distance traveled to
college, number of children in a
family, etc.)
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data are generally described by
words or letters. They are not as widely used
as quantitative data because many numerical
techniques do not apply to the qualitative
data. For example, it does not make sense to
find an average hair color or blood type.
Qualitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:
 dichotomic (if it takes the form of a
word with two options (gender - male
or female)
 polynomic (if it takes the form of a
word with more than two options
(education - primary school,
secondary school and university).
Quantitative data (According to
Measurement)
Quantitative data are always numbers and
are the result of counting or measuring
attributes of a population. Quantitative data
can be separated into two subgroups:
 discrete (if it is the result of counting
(the number of students of a given
ethnic group in a class, the number of
books on a shelf, ...)
 continuous (if it is the result of
measuring (distance traveled, weight
of luggage, …)
Numerical Scale Of Measurement:
 Nominal: consist of categories in each
of which the number of respective
observations is recorded. The categories
are in no logical order and have no
particular relationship. The categories
are said to be mutually exclusive since
an individual, object, or measurement
can be included in only one of them.
 Ordinal: contain more information.
Consists of distinct categories in which
order is implied. Values in one category
are larger or smaller than values in other
categories (e.g. rating-excelent, good,
fair, poor)
 Interval: is a set of numerical
measurements in which the distance
between numbers is of a known,
constant size.
 Ratio: consists of numerical
measurements where the distance
between numbers is of a known, constant
size, in addition, there is a nonarbitrary
zero point.
Lesson 2: Random Variables
 You might recall that a statistical
experiment is any process by which
observations are made and data are
collected.
 The result of an experiment is known as
outcome.
 Statistical experiments can have finite or
infinite number of outcomes.
 The collection of all possible outcomes
is known as the sample space which is
typically denoted by an S.
 When one or more outcomes in the
sample space is considered, this is
referred to as an event.
Random Variables
In some experiments such as tossing a coin
three times, rolling a die twice, drawing two
balls from an urn and the like, we are not
oftentimes concerned with every detail of
the outcomes.
We are usually interested in some numerals
associated with outcomes.
For example, if a coin is tossed twice, the set
of all possible outcomes (S) of the
experiment is.
If we are interested in the number of heads
that came out in the experiment, then we can
assign numbers 0, 1, and 2 for each of the 4
possible outcomes. Thus, we can write
From the table above, instead of writing
Number of Heads, we can denote it as set X
whose elements x1=0, x2 = 1 and x3 = 2. In
symbol, X = {0,1,2}.
Then X is called a Random Variable.
Random Variable [Definition]
A variable whose assigned value is
determined by the outcome of a random
experiment or procedure is known as
random variable.
 It is usually denoted by uppercase
letters such as X, whose elements are
denoted by lower case letters x1, x2, x3
and so on.
 Understanding the concepts of sample
space and random variables is
important in the study of probability.
Classification of Random Variables
 Discrete Random Variables are random
variables that can take on a finite or
countable infinite number of distinct
values. Each value can be described by
an integer value.
 Continuous Random Variables are
random variables that take an
uncountably infinite number of possible
values, typically measurable quantities.
The values are obtained by measurement
and may assume all values in the interval
between any two given values along a
number line.
1. A study on the number of customers
served by a restaurant on a particular day
was conducted. If the random variable 𝑋
denotes the number of customers served on
that day, then 𝑋 can take one of the values 𝑋
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ….
Answer: In this case the number of
customers may increase indefinitely, and
each number represents distinct specific
values. We call it a discrete random
variable.
2. Suppose we are interested in looking at
statistics test scores from a sample of 40
students. The random variable would be the
test scores which would range from 0% to
100%. In this case we will use intervals to
denote the various values of the random
variable.
Answer: When we use intervals for our
random variable, all values in the interval
are possible values of the random variable.
We call this kind of variable continuous
random variable.
Probability Distributions of Discrete
Random Variables
Probability Notation for a Discrete Random
Variable
 The probability of an event (𝐸) denoted
by 𝑃(𝐸) is the chance or likelihood of
that event occurring.
 To be more precise and consistent when
describing the probability of an event, a
numerical measure is applied.
 The numerical systems used to describe
probability assign values ranging from
zero (0) for impossible events up to one
(1) for those events that are certain to
occur.
 The probability of all other events lies
between these two extreme values.
 In any experiment, the probability that
an event E occurs is given by
If E is certain to occur, P (E) = 1
If E is impossible to occur, P(E) = 0
number of time E occurs
P(E) =
number of possible outcomes
 For a discrete random variable, we may
either create a table or use a formula to
give probabilities for each possible
 value. The correspondence between each
possible value and probability is known
as the probability distribution function
(pdf) for the variable.
 In other words, for a discrete random
variable X, the probability distribution
function can be illustrated as a table or
rule that assigns a probability to each
possible value of the variable X.
Properties of the Probabilities of Discrete
Random Variables
1. The probability of each value is between
0 and 1.
2. The sum of all the probabilities is equal
to 1.
Lesson 3: Mean of the Discrete
Random Variable
Mean
Mean is one of the most important
probabilistic concepts in statistics. The mean
of the discrete random variable X, denoted
by X and μ, it is the weighted average of all
possible values of X. It does not have to be a
value of discrete random variable can
assume.
E ( X )=μ=∑ xP (x)
E(X) = is the mean of the outcomes x
μ = is the mean
∑ xP (x)= is the sum of each random
variable value x multiplied by its own
probability P(x)
Example: Let X be the number of cakes
sold in a certain store during valentine’s day,
along with its corresponding probabilities is
given in the table below. Solve the mean of
X.
The value obtained is called the mean of the
random variable or the mean of the
probability distribution of X. The mean tells
us that the average number cakes sold by a
certain store during valentine’s day is 23.95.
Since we are referring to a number of cakes,
thus, the mean is approximately 24 cakes.
NOTE: The mean of random variable is also
referred to as the expected value, denoted by μ x
= E[X]
Lesson 4: Variance, And Standard
Deviation of Discrete Random
Variable
Variance and Standard Deviation of a
Probability Distribution [Long Method]
The mean µ of the random variable X
provides us with a measure of the central
location of the distribution of X, but it does
not give us information on how the various
values dispersed from µ.
Variance– combines all the values in a data
set to produce a measure of spread. It is
used to measure how far the data values are
dispersed from the mean.
Standard Deviation– is the measure of
spread most commonly used in statistical
practice. It is used to calculate the amount
of dispersion of the given data set values.
NOTE: Standard Deviation is also useful when
comparing the spread of two separate data sets
that have approximately the same mean.
Generally, the more widely spread the values
are, the larger the standard deviation is.
Thus, the variance of a discrete probability
distribution is given by the formula:
σ =∑ [ ( X−μ ) · P(X ) ]
2
2
The formula used to compute the standard
deviation of the discrete probability
distribution is shown below.
√
𝜎 = ∑ [ ( X −μ )2 · P( X ) ]
where:
X = value of the random variable
P(X) = probability of the random variable X
µ = mean of the probability distribution
Example: Find the mean
 Variance and Standard Deviation of a
Probability Distribution [Short Method]
Variance
σ =∑ [ ( X−μ ) · P(X ) ] =0.56
2 2
3. The total area under the curve is equal to
one.
4. The normal curve approaches, but never
touches the x-axis as it extends farther

Standard Deviation and farther away from the mean.

5. Between μ  σ and μ + σ (in the center
√
𝜎 = ∑ [ ( X −μ )2 · P( X ) ] =√ 0.56 = 0.75
of the curve), the graph curves
downward. The graph curves upward to
the left of μ  σ and to the right of μ + σ.
The points at which the curve changes
from curving upward to curving
downward are called the inflection

Lesson 5: Normal Probability

Distributions points.
Properties of Normal Distributions 6.
A continuous random variable has an
infinite number of possible values that can
be represented by an interval on the number
line.
Hours spent studying in a day
A normal distribution can have any mean
and any positive standard deviation.

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

The time spent studying

can be any number
between 0 and 24.

The probability distribution of a continuous
random variable is called a continuous
probability distribution.
The most important probability distribution
in statistics is the normal distribution.
Normal curve
A normal distribution is a continuous
probability distribution for a random
variable, x. The graph of a normal
distribution is called the normal curve.
Properties of a Normal Distribution
1. The mean, median, and mode is equal.
2. The normal curve is bell-shaped and
symmetric about the mean.
The standard deviation describes the spread
of the data.
Empirical Rule
The empirical rule is better known as 68% -
95% - 99.70% rule.
This rule states that the data in the
distribution lies within one (1), two (2), and
three (3) of the standard deviation from the
mean are approximately 68%, 95%, and
99.70%, respectively.
Since the area of a normal curve is equal
x to 1 or 100% as stated on its characteristics,
there are only a few data which is 0.30%
falls outside the 3-standard deviation from
the mean.
It can summarize the distribution in the
following percentage:
 68% of data lies within 1 standard
deviation from the mean have a grade of
83 to 91
 95% of data lies within 2 standard
deviations from the mean have a grade
of 79 to 95
 99.70% of data lies within 3 standard
deviations from the mean have a grade
of 75 to 99
The Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution is a
normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1.
Any value can be transformed into a z-score
by using the formula:
Va lu e - Mea n x -μ
z = = .
St a n da r d devia t ion σ
If each data value of a normally distributed
random variable x is transformed into a z-
score, the result will be the standard normal
distribution.
After the formula is used to transform an x-
value into a z-score, the Standard Normal
Table in Appendix A is used to find the
cumulative area under the curve.
Properties of the Standard Normal
Distribution
1. The cumulative area is close to 0 for z-
scores close to z = 3.49.
2. The cumulative area increases as the z-
scores increase.
3. The cumulative area for z = 0 is 0.5000.
4. The cumulative area is close to 1 for z-
scores close to z = 3.49]
Guidelines for Finding Areas
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal
Curve
1. Sketch the standard normal curve and
shade the appropriate area under the
curve.
2. Find the area by following the directions
for each case shown.
a. To find the area to the left of z, find
the area that corresponds to z in the
Standard Normal Table.
b. To find the area to the right of z,
use the Standard Normal Table to
find the area that corresponds to z.
Then subtract the area from 1.
c. To find the area between two z-
scores, find the area corresponding
to each z-score in the Standard
Normal Table. Then subtract the
smaller area from the larger area.
Lesson 6: Converting a Normal
Random Variable to a Standard
Normal Variable and Vice-Versa
In this case, you convert the raw score (x)
into the standard score (z) using the formula:
X−μ
z=
σ
You substitute the given value and uses
properties of equality and algebraic rules to
obtain the needed data. This procedure is
known as “standardizing” or
“standardization” of a random variable,
where a standardized value is called z-score.
A z-score is a measure of the number of
standard deviations (σ ) a particular data
value is away from the mean (μ)
Example: Suppose your score on a test in
Probability and Statistics is 39 and the
scores are normally distributed with a mean
of 33 and standard deviation of 3, then your
score is exactly 2 standard deviations above
the mean.
If you scored 30, then it is exactly 1 standard
deviation below the mean. All values that
are above the mean have positive z-scores
and all values that are below the mean have
negative z-scores.
If you obtained a z-score of -3, this means
that your score is 3 standard deviations
below the mean, that is, 33 - 3(3) = 33 – 9 =
24
Z-Score
Given any value of x from a normal
distribution with a mean μ and standard
deviation σ , to convert x to a z-score
(standard normal score), you need to;
a. Subtract the mean μ from x
b. Divide this quantity, x - μ, by the
standard deviation σ
The formula used in converting a random
variable x to a standard normal variable z is:
Where:
z – standard normal score or z-score
x – any data value in a normal distribution
μ – mean
σ – standard deviation
To solve for the normal random variable x,
multiply the z-score (z) by the standard
deviation σ , then add the mean μ
X = z (σ ) + μ
Lesson 7: Computing Probabilities
and Percentiles Using the Standard
Normal Table
A normal distribution curve can be used as a
probability distribution curve for normally
distributed variables
The area under the standard normal
distribution curve can also be thought of as a
probability
That is, if it’s possible to select any z value
at random, the probability of choosing one,
say, below 1.45 would be the as the area
under the curve at the left of 1.45
In this case, the area is 0.9265
Therefore, the probability of randomly
selecting a z value below of 1.45 is 0.9265
or 92.65%
The problems involving probabilities and
percentiles are solved in the same manner as
finding the areas under a normal curve
In finding probabilities, the following
notations will be used:
a. P (Z < z) – probability at the left of z
b. P (Z > z) = P (Z < z) – probability at the
right of z
c. P (a < z < b) – the probability of z that is
in between two other z values, say a and
d. P (X < x) – probability at the left of a
normal random variable x
e. P (X > x) – probability at the right of a
normal random variable x
f. P (a < X < b) – the probability of a normal
random variable x that is in between two
other normal random variables, say a and b
h. P (X < a) u P (X > b) – the probability of
x is in the opposite direction of two values,
say a and b
Example: To pass in the accreditation and
equivalency (A&E) test, ALS students must
score in the top 15% in general ability tests.
The test has a mean of 200 and a standard
deviation of 20. Find the lowest possible
score to pass the test assuming the test
scores are normally distributed.
The lowers possible score is the normal
random variable corresponding to a z value
occupying an area of 0.15 from the right of
the normal curve. To solve for the required
variable, give that P (Z > z) = 0.15
NOTE: Remember P (Z < z) + P (Z > z) = 1
P (Z > z) = 0.15
1 – P (Z > z) = 1 – 0.15 P (Z > z) = 1 –
0.15, since it is right tailed – 0.85
From the table, look for the z value
corresponding to this area
Thus, z = 1.03, then convert this to a normal
random variable x
X = (1.03) (20) + 200 = 220.6  221
Lesson 8: Locating Percentiles Under
the Normal Curve
Percentile
 For any set of measurements (arranged
in ascending or descending order), a
percentile (or a centile) is a point in the
 distribution such that a given number of the sample. The lottery method, drawing
cases is below it. lots, or the use of random numbers can be
used to accomplish random sampling.

 A percentile is a measure of relative Types of Random Sampling

standing. It is a descriptive measure of A. Simple random sampling
the relationship of a measurement to the It is the most basic sampling technique. In
rest of the data. this sampling technique, every member of
Percentile and Z-Scores the population has an equal chance of being
 A probability value corresponds to an chosen to be a part of the sample. One way
area under the normal curve. to do simple random sampling is by using
 In the Table of Areas Under the Normal the Table of Random Numbers or by using
Curve, the numbers in the extreme left the lottery method.
and across the top are z-scores, which
are the distances along the horizontal
scale. The numbers in the body of the
table are areas or probabilities.
 The z-scores to the left of the mean are
negative values.
 A percentile is a measure of relative
standing. It is a descriptive measure of
the relationship of a measurement to the
rest of the data.
 In the Table of Areas Under the Normal
Curve, the numbers in the extreme left
and across the top are z-scores, which
are the distances along the horizontal
scale. The numbers in the body of the
table are areas or probabilities.
 The z-scores to the left of the mean are
negative values.
Lesson 9: Sampling Distributions and
the Central Limit Theorem
A sampling distribution is the probability
distribution of a sample statistic that is
formed when samples of size n are
repeatedly taken from a population.
If the sample statistic is the sample mean,
then the distribution is the sampling
distribution of sample means.
The sampling distribution consists of the
values of the sample means, B. Systematic Sampling

The totality of subjects (people, animals or

objects) under consideration is called
population. The portion chosen from a
population is called sample and the process of
taking samples is called sampling.
Random Sampling refers to the technique
in which each member of the population is C. Stratified Sampling
given equal chance to be chosen as part of
In stratified sampling, the population is Step 2. Solve for the mean of the samples
partitioned into several subgroups called Step 3. Construct the sampling distribution
strata which are based on some of the sample mean by preparing another
characteristics like year level, gender, age, table with means on the 1st column and
ethnicity, etc. probability on the second column
D. Cluster or Area Sampling
The population is divided into clusters. From
these clusters, random sample clusters will
be drawn. All the elements from the sampled
clusters will make up the sample.
Parameters and Statistic
The measurement or quantity that describes
the population is called PARAMETER,
while the measurement or quantity that
describes the sample is called STATISTIC.

Lesson 10: Mean and Variance of the

Sampling Distribution of the Sample
Mean
Constructing a sampling distribution of
the sample mean
Population: {1, 3, 5}
Samples of size 2 done w/replacement Step 4. Add a column for X ⦁ P ( X )
Step 1. Use Fundamental Counting Principle Step 5. Get the sum of the entries for
to get all the possible outcomes [3 x 3 = 9] X ⦁ P (X )
N
E ( X )=∑ X i ∙ P( X i)
i=1
 2
Var ( X )=E ( X )− [ E (X ) ]
2

Step 6. Add a column for X 2

NOTE: The mean of the sampling
distribution of the sample mean is equal to
the pollution mean

NOTE: The variance of the sampling

distribution of the sample mean is equal to
the population mean divided by the same
size

Theorem
If all possible random samples of size n are
taken with replacement from a population
with mean μ and variance σ 2, then the
mean μ X , variance σ 2x , and standard error
σ x of the sampling distribution of the sample
mean are:
μ X =μ (mean)
2
2 σ
σ x = (variance)
n
σ
σ x= (standard error)
√n
 Standard error – standard deviation of
the sampling distribution of the sample
mean

Step 7. Add a column for X 2 ⦁ P ¿)

Step 8. Get the sum of the entries for
X ⦁ P ¿)
2

Multi-Rule Map
Step 9. Solve for the variance
Title: Finding the mean and variance of the
sampling distribution of the sample mean
 σ N −n ¿
2
2
σ x= (
n N−1
(standard deviation or standard error)

√
σ N −n
σ x=
√ n N −1
N −n
Note: The factor is called correction
N−1
factor for the finite population. It will be
close to 1 and can be safely ignored When n
is small compared to N.

Theorem 1
If all possible random samples of size n are
taken with replacement(infinite) from a
population with mean μ and variance σ 2,
then the mean μ X , variance σ 2x , and
standard error σ x of the sampling
distribution of the sample mean are:
(mean)
μ X =μ
(variance)
2
2 σ
σ x=
n
(standard error)
σ
σ x=
√n
 Standard error – standard deviation of
the sampling distribution of the sample
mean
Theorem 2
If all possible random samples of size n are
taken without replacement(dependent) from
a finite population of size N with mean μ
and variance σ 2, then the mean μ X ,
variance σ 2x , and standard deviation σ x of
the sampling distribution of the sample
mean are:
(mean)
μ X =μ
(variance)
 14. Between the curve
Z-Scores’ Value1 – Z-Scores’ Value2
Formulas to Remember! 15. Random Variable X
1. Sample mean X = z (σ ) + μ
Xi 16. Looking for Percentiles
Σ a. P (Z < z) – probability at the left of z
n
b. P (Z > z) = P (Z < z) – probability at the right
2. Probability – P(X)
of z
number of time E occurs
P(E) = c. P (a < z < b) – the probability of z that is in
number of possible outcomes
between two other z values, say a and
NOTE:
d. P (X < x) – probability at the left of a normal
The probability of each value is between 0 and 1.
random variable x
The sum of all the probabilities is equal to 1.
e. P (X > x) – probability at the right of a normal
3. Mean of the probability distribution
random variable x
E ( X )=μ=∑ xP (x)
f. P (a < X < b) – the probability of a normal
E(X) = is the mean of the outcomes x random variable x that is in between two other
μ = is the mean normal random variables, say a and b
∑ xP (x)= is the sum of each random variable h. P (X < a) u P (X > b) – the probability of x is
value x multiplied by its own probability P(x) in the opposite direction of two values, say a and
4. Formula for Variance [L.M] b
σ =∑ [ ( X−μ ) · P(X ) ] 17. Slovin’s Formula [Simple Random
2 2

Sampling]
X = value of the random variable
P(X) = probability of the random variable X N
n= 2
µ = mean of the probability distribution 1+ N e
5. Formula for Standard Deviation [L.M] 18. Systematic Sampling
N −number of elements∈the population
𝜎= √∑ [ ( X −μ ) · P( X )]
2
k=
n−number of elements∈the sample
X = value of the random variable
19. Step 5 in constructing sampling distribution
P(X) = probability of the random variable X N
µ = mean of the probability distribution E ( X )=∑ X i ∙ P( X i)
6. Formula for Variance [S.M] i=1

σ =∑ [ ( X−μ ) · P(X ) ] 20. Step 8 in constructing sampling distribution

2 2

X ⦁ P ¿)
2
7. Standard Deviation [S.M]
21. Formula for the Variance of Sampling
𝜎= √∑ [ ( X −μ ) · P( X )]
2
Distribution
8. Empirical Rule 2
( X )=E ( X 2 ) −[ E(X ) ]
This rule states that the data in the distribution
lies within one (1), two (2), and three (3) of the 22. Formula for the mean of sampling
standard deviation from the mean are distribution
approximately 68%, 95%, and 99.70%,
respectively.
68% of data lies within 1 standard deviation
from the mean have a grade of 83 to 91 23. Formula for the variance of the sampling
95% of data lies within 2 standard distribution
deviations from the mean have a grade of 79 to
95
99.70% of data lies within 3 standard
deviations from the mean have a grade of 75 to 24. Formulas for Theorem 1
99 μ X =μ (mean)
9. The area of a normal curve is equal to 1 or 2
100% 2 σ
σ x= (variance)
10. Z-Score n
Va lu e - Mea n x -μ σ
z = = . σ x= (standard error)
St a n da r d devia t ion σ √n
11. Above/Right the curve 25. Formulas for Theorem 2
1 – z-scores’ value μ X =μ (mean)
12. Below/Left the curve
Z-scores’ value
 σ N −n ¿
2
2
σ x= ( (variance)
n N−1

√
σ N −n (standard error)
σ x=
√ n N −1