Statistics

By:
Mr. Charly Q. Bongabong M.Sc.(CAR)
Lesson 1

01 Intro on Statistics
Definition of statistics
A branch of science that deals with the development of methods
for a more effective way of
• collecting,
• organizing,
• interpreting,
• presenting, and
• analyzing data.
It involves the development and application of methods to extract
meaningful insights and draw conclusion from data.
Why study statistics?
1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make
many decisions that affect our lives
3. No matter what your career, you will
make professional decisions that
involve data. An understanding of
statistical methods will help you make
these decisions effectively
 Descriptive vs. Inferential statistics
TWO MAJOR
AREAS OF
STATISTICS
Descriptive Inferential
Methods of organizing, summarizing, Methods used to determine something
and presenting data in an informative about a population on the basis of a
way. It provide information about the sample. It use statistical techniques to
central tendency, variability and estimate parameters, test hypotheses,
graphical distribution of the data. and make predictions.
Descriptive Statistics
• Collection of methods for
summarizing and presenting
data
• Helps describe, show or
summarize data in a meaningful
way
• Describe characteristics of the
data
 Inferential Statistics
Collection of methods for using sample data to make conclusions about a population

Population –The entire set

of individuals or objects of
interest.

Sample – A portion, or part,

of the population of interest.
It should have the same
characteristics as the
population it is representing.
Sampling methods
Sampling methods can be:
 random (each member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected)
 nonrandom

The actual process of sampling causes sampling errors. For example, the
sample may not be large enough or representative of the population. Factors not
related to the sampling process cause nonsampling errors. A defective counting
device can cause a nonsampling error.
 Reasons for Drawing a Sample

 Less time consuming than a census

 Less costly to administer than a census
 Less cumbersome and more practical to administer than a census of the
targeted population
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

 basic sampling method which is a self-weighting sampling design because
all the elements in a population have an equal probability or chance of
being included in the sample.

 In practice, each unit in the population is numbered 1 to N and n units are

randomly drawn from the N
Probability Sampling
In selecting a random sample, three steps are involved:
(1) define the population,
(2) enumerate its elements or units, and
(3) use a random number generator to select the sample
Random Number Generator:
• Lottery Method
• Use of Table of Random Numbers
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12
10 11

13 14 15 16 19 20 21 22 23 24
17 18 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

1
5

1 19 8 28 32
Probability Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling

sampling starts by selecting an element from the list at

random and then every kth element in the frame is selected
Probability Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Example:
 N=500 and n=50, then k=N/n=10
(if k is non-integer, round off to next higher integer)
 Select a random number from 1 to 10, say i=4.
 Then the systematic sample consists of units with serial numbers
corresponding to 4, 14, 24, and so on until ending with the number
494.
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12
10 11

24 26
13 14 15 16 19 20 21 25 29 30 31 32
17 18 22 23 27 28

1
8

 N=32 and n=5, then k=7. Suppose i=3.

Probability Sampling
Stratified Sampling
• used when we wish the sample to represent the various
strata (subgroups) of the population proportionately or to
increase the precision of the estimate
• the population is first divided into mutually exclusive sub-
populations known as strata
Probability Sampling
Cluster sampling
• When “natural” groupings are evident in the population,
these groupings which are called clusters, may be randomly
selected and all elements from each selected cluster can be
included in the sample (one-stage cluster sampling), or a
sub-selection can be made from within the selected clusters
(two-stage cluster sampling)
 Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience/Accidental sampling
- group is selected at will or researcher uses subjects who happen to be
accessible or who may represent certain types of characteristics.
Non-Probability Sampling
Judgement/Purposive sampling
- the researcher selects particular elements from the population that are
representative or informative about the topic of interest.
Non-Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling

- a convenience sample with an effort made to insure a certain distribution of

demographic variables.
Subjects are recruited as they arrive and the researcher will assign them to
demographic groups based on variables like age and sex. When the quota for
a given demographic group is filled, the researcher will stop recruiting
subjects from that particular group.
Non-Probability Sampling
Snowball/Network
sampling

- uses social
networks to
identify
populations which
are difficult to find
Summary Types of Sampling
• Probability Sampling
simple Random Sampling
systematic sampling
stratified sampling
cluster sampling
• Non – probability sampling
convenience sampling
judgement sampling
quota sampling
snowball
Lesson 2

02 Data & Measurement Scale

Statistical data
 The collection of data that are relevant to the problem being studied is
commonly the most difficult, expensive, and time-consuming part of
the entire research project.

 Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring items.

Primary data are collected specifically for the analysis desired

Secondary data have already been compiled and are available for
statistical analysis
 A variable is an item of interest that can take on many different
numerical values.
Statistical data
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring items. Most
data can be put into the following categories:

Qualitative - data are measurements that each fail into one of several
categories. (hair color, ethnic groups and other attributes of the
population). It is about nature of the thing investigated, and tends to be
words rather than numbers.

Quantitative - data are observations that are measured on a numerical

scale (distance traveled to college, number of children in a family, etc.). It
is about quantities, and therefore numbers.
Qualitative data
- generally described by words or letters. They are not as widely used as
quantitative data because many numerical techniques do not apply to
the qualitative data. For example, it does not make sense to find an
average hair color or blood type.

Qualitative data can be separated into two subgroups:

dichotomic (if it takes the form of a word with two options (gender - male
or female)
polynomic (if it takes the form of a word with more than two options
(education - primary school, secondary school and university).
Quantitative data
Quantitative data are always numbers and are the
result of counting or measuring attributes of a population.

Quantitative data can be separated into two

subgroups:
discrete (if it is the result of counting (the number of students of a given
ethnic group in a class, the number of books on a shelf, ...)

continuous (if it is the result of measuring (distance traveled, weight of

luggage, …)
Numerical scale of measurement

 Nominal These four scales of measurement

 Ordinal
provide different levels of information
 Interval
 Ratio
and determine the types of statistical
analysis and operations that can be
performed on the data collected.
Nominal Scale

The nominal scale is the simplest form of

measurement, where numbers are used as labels or
categories to represent different groups or
classifications. In this scale, the numbers do not have
any inherent quantitative value or order.
Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale not only allows for
classification but also establishes a relative order or
ranking among the categories. The numbers in an
ordinal scale represent the order or position of the
items, but the differences between the numbers may
not be equal or meaningful.
Interval Scale
It has the properties of the ordinal scale and also
provides a consistent unit of measurement with equal
intervals between the numbers. It means that the
differences between the numbers are meaningful and
equal, but the scale does not have a true zero point. In
an interval scale, the absence of a value does not imply
a complete absence of the attribute being measured.
Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is the most comprehensive scale
of measurement. It possesses all the properties of the
previous scales (nominal, ordinal, and interval) and
includes a true zero point. In a ratio scale, zero
represents the complete absence of the attribute being
measured. Additionally, ratios and meaningful
comparisons can be made between values.