Reviewer in Statistics

Statistics - Is a collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then
analyzing, interpreting and drawing conclusions based on the data.

Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

Definition Descriptive Statistics is that Inferential Statistics is a type

branch of statistics which is
concerned with describing the
population under study.
of statistics that focuses on
drawing conclusions about
the population on the basis of
sample analysis and
observation.

What it does Organize, analyze and Compares, test and predicts

present data in a meaningful data.
way.

Form of final result Charts, Graphs and Tables Probability

Usage To describe a situation To explain the chances of

occurrence of an event.

Function It explains the data which is It attempts to reach the

already known, to summarize conclusion to learn about the
the sample. population that extends
beyond data available.

—Common Terms in Statistics—

Population - A population is the complete and entire collection of elements to be studied.

Sample - A part of the population.

Parameter - Is a numerical measurement describing some characteristics of a population.

Statistic - Is a numerical measurement describing some characteristics of a sample.

Survey - Is often conducted to gather opinions or feedback about a variety of topics.

Data - The statistical facts, historical facts, principles, opinions and items of various sources like
score ages, IQ, income, etc.
Ungrouped data - Data which have not been organized or classified and usually exhibit no
pattern.

Tabulation - The process of grouping or classifying data for purposes of interpretation .

Statistical Method - Any method of research involving mathematical operations both simple or
complicated.

Variable - Is characteristic of interest measurable on each and every individual in the universe,
denoted by any capital letter in the English alphabet.

Two types of Variable

★ Qualitative Variable - Consists of categories or attributes, which have non-numerical

characteristics
★ Quantitative Variable - Consists of numbers representing counts or measurements.

Classification of Quantitative Variable/Data

Continuous Data - This arises from measurement of a continuous variable.

Discrete Data - This is characterized by gaps for which no real values may be obtained. They
are made up of items the values of which have been obtained by counting

Classifying Data in the Four Levels of Measurement

The level of measurement of data determines the algebraic operations that can be performed
and the statistical tools that can be applied to the data set.

The following are the four levels:

★ Nominal
★ Ordinal
★ Interval
★ Ratio

Nominal - Is characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or categories only. The data
cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme

Ordinal - Involves data that may be arranged in some order, but differences between data
values either cannot be determined or are meaningless

Interval - Is like ordinal, with the additional property that meaningful amounts of differences
between data can be determined. However, there is no inherent (natural) zero starting point
Ratio - Is the interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point. For values at this
level, differences and ratios are meaningful

Collection of Data

Types of Data
★ Primary Data - are information collected from an original source of data, which is
firsthand in nature.
★ Secondary Data - are information collected from a already published or unpublished
source like newspapers and thesis.

Methods of Data Collection

★ Direct or Interview - Uses at least two people (Interviewer & Interviewee/s) exchanging
information.
★ Indirect or Questionnaire Method - This is a method where written answers are given to
prepared questions.
= Open Question - allows a free response
= Closed Question - allows a fixed response
★ Registration Method - This is a method enforced by certain laws
★ Observation Method - This is a method, which observes the behavior of individuals or
organizations in the study.
★ Experiment Method - This method is used when the objective of the study is to
determine the cause and effect of certain phenomena or event.

Sampling Techniques

A procedure used to determine or select the individuals or members of a sample.

There are two sampling techniques.

★ Probability Sampling - technique wherein each member or element of the population has
an equal chance of being selected as members of the sample.
★ Non-Probability Sampling - does not involve random selection of samples. It does not
mean however that no probability samples aren’t representative of the population.

Probability Sampling
★ Simple Random Sampling - Each individual entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected.
★ Stratified Random Sampling - This method involves dividing the population into
homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup.
★ Systematic Random Sampling - Is a method of selecting a sample by taking every nth
unit from an ordered population.
★ Cluster Sampling - Involves dividing the population into clusters, usually along
geographic boundaries, then randomly taking samples of clusters, and measuring all
units with sampled clusters
Non-Probability Sampling
★ Convenience Sampling - The easiest method of sampling, because participants are
selected based on the availability and willingness to take part.
★ Purposive Sampling - This technique relies on the judgment of the researchers when
choosing who to ask to participate.
★ Quota Sampling - Respondents are selected according to some fixed quota
★ Heterogeneity Sampling - Is performed where all opinions or views about a specific topic
are the primary concern and representing these views proportionately is not of major
importance
★ Snowball Sampling - The process starts by identifying someone who meets the criteria
for inclusion in the study. The respondent is then asked to recommend others whom
they may know who also meet the criteria.

Slovin’s Formula
★ Is used to calculate the sample size given the population size and a margin of error.

ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ n=sample size N=population size e=margin of error

Summation Notation
★ Shorthand way of expressing a sum
★ Uses the Greek letter sigma Σ
ㅤㅤ i = index of summation
ㅤㅤ n = upper limit of summation
ㅤㅤ x i= formula used to generate each
ㅤㅤㅤㅤ term of the sum

★ Any letter can be used to index a summation

Measures of Central Tendency or Average (Ungrouped/Raw Data)

★ Mean - mean is the sum of all values divided by the number of cases
★ Median - calculated by finding which number falls at the exact center point in an ordered
set
★ Mode - the number that appears most frequently in a set of data

Mean Formula
ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ x = mean N= number of population
ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ Σ x = sum of all values