PR2 REVIEWER

CHAPTER I: The Problem and Literature Review

Background of the study -Context (information about the problem.)

-What are the rationale/aims of your study? What is known about the broad topic? What is the
justification/ significance of the addressing those gaps?

Literature Review- Sources (research problem, theories, methods, findings, - scholarly debate). Summarize main points of each
source. Interpret the gathered information. Analyze trends, themes, debates, pivotal publications, or gaps. Outline you RRL structure.

-Do certain approaches become more or less popular over time? What concepts recur across the literature? Where

do sources disagree? Are there any influential studies that change the direction of the field?

-Chronological, Thematic, Methodological

Conceptual Framework- Variables (relationship). ( research question, type of research, conclusion)

-Illustrate how you think all the variables in your study relate to one another. Describe each of the variables
and their roles. Justify how each of the variables relate to one another.

Statement of the Problem- an explanation in research that describes the issue that is in need of study.

Hypothesis- testable answer (wise guess/prediction). Formulate your hypothesis (initial answer) by writing in a clear, concise

sentence.

-Null hypothesis (Ho)- states the absence of relationship between the independent and dependent variable. (No)

- Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)- states the relationship between the independent and dependent variable (Yes)

Scope and Delimitations- focus and boundaries. Specify the focus why, what, who, where, when and how. Explain the boundaries.

Cite the weaknesses of your study.

Definition of Terms- alphabetical list of important terms. Operational Definition (using your own words based on the use of terms)

CHAPTER II: Methods (steps, answer)

Research Design- overall strategy, is defined as the rational and coherent overall strategy that the researcher uses to incorporate all
the vital components of the research study.

Sampling and Participants- population, sample and sample size computation, sampling techniques and procedure

Research Locale- description of the place or setting of the study

Population- who are the potential sources of data? All people that are of interest to the researcher. (Group- similar characteristics)

Small, Accessible, Cooperative- Reliable Results

Approaches in Identifying the Sample size (size= number/total)

1. Literature Review: . Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your current research study.
Since you are done writing your review of related literature and studies, you might want to recall how these studies
determine sample size.
2. Heuristics- This approach refers to the general rule or rule of the thumb for sample size. This is the earliest established
approach for sample sizes for different research designs.

Research Design Suggested Number of Subjects/Participants

Descriptive Research 10% to 20% maybe required

 Comparative Research 15 Subjects or groups

Survey 800

Correlational 100 to 200

Ex post facto 30+

Experimental 30 or more

3. Formula- Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable sample size.
a. Cochran’s Formula- for large populations Formula:
where: e-margin of error/ desired level of precision
p- estimated proportion of population Example:
q is 1-p
Z is the z value found in Z table
For small population of a known size, it uses Cochran’s equation together with a population correction to calculate
sample size. Formula:
b. Slovin’s Formula
Formula: n= sample size e= margin of error
N = population size
c. Krejcie & Morgan
d. Raosoft Calculator

n- sample size e- margin of error (5%) ( error you can tolerate) Amount of certainty (95%)

N- population p- proportion of population (0.5%)

Sampling Techniques- process of choosing sample

A. Probability Sampling- all have equal chance

1. Simple Random Sampling- It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the accessible population
are given an equal chance to be selected.
2. Systematic Random Sampling-This procedure is as simple as selecting samples every nth (example every 2nd,
5th) of the chosen population until arriving at a desired total number of sample size.
3. Stratified Random Sampling- population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the samples. The
samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire population. This procedure is best
used when the variables of the study are also grouped into classes such as gender and grade level.
4. Cluster Random Sampling-This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies, geographical spread out of the
population is a challenge, and gathering information will be very time-consuming.
B. Non Probability Sampling- not all have equal chance
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Quota Sampling
4. Snowball Sampling

Steps to easily analyze research data:

1. Encode and organize your data for analysis according to the data asked by your research question.
2. Use your data for statistical test you have identified.
3. Present the result in tabular or graphical form.
4. Write the interpretations for each table or graph highlighting the significant results and its implications.
5. Support your findings from relevant literature and studies you have cited.

Data Analysis: Encoding, Statistical Tool, Tabular or Graphical, Interpretation, Relevant Literature

- Is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such manner that will yield answer to the research
questions
The statistical treatment makes explicit the different statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze the research data.
Quantitative Research- determine a relationship between factors or prove a theory through numerical data

Data Processing Techniques

Editing- detects and corrects errors and omissions to guarantee that data are accurate, complete and arranged.

Coding - refers to the process of assigning numerical value or other symbols to answers

Tabulation- a system of arranging numeric data into columns and rows (table) to draw reasonable conclusions.

2 Major Statistical Techniques:

1. Descriptive Statistics- summarizes or describes the characteristics of the population or a sample of the population. e
provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced data from your research sample.
2. Inferential Statistics- a way of making inferences (predictions/conclusion) s is used when the research study focuses on
finding predictions; testing hypothesis; and finding interpretations, generalizations, and conclusions

univariate analysis means analysis of one variable.

two variables such as independent and dependent variables refer to bivariate analysis

multivariate analysis involves analysis of the multiple relations between multiple variables

Measure of Frequency Distribution

Frequency Count- the number of times a characteristics occurs (actual count)

Percentage- any proportion from the whole. Percentage (%)= (part/whole)*100

Measure of Central Tendency- a numerical value which indicates the average performance of a group

a. Mean
b. Median
c. Mode

Mean- the middlemost value of your list of values. Most widely used, most reliable, most dependable. Defined as the sum of all
distribution divided by the number of observations.

Formula: Mean= Sum of all data values/ number of data values (add lahat divide kung ilan)

Median- value that’s exactly in the middle of data (nasa gitna)

Mode- value appears most frequently in a data (paulit ulit)

Standard Deviation shows the spread of data around the mean. (Formula

Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r) is a statistical method used to estimate the strength of relationship between two quantitative
variables.

Regression Analysis can be used to explain the relationship between dependent and independent variables.

Hypothesis testing. A hypothesis test helps you determine some quantity under a given assumption

statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to decide about whether the null hypothesis should be rejected. In a one-tailed
test (left-tailed or right-tailed test), when the test value falls in the critical region on one side of the mean, the null hypothesis should
be rejected. a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value falls in either of the two critical regions.

Measure of Dispersion- numerical value which indicates how similar or different the data are (lower- homogeneous)

Test of Correlation (Bivariate)

Pearson’s- used to determine if there is a correlation between two variables (interval or ratio type)

Pearson R Formula:
Chi Square test of independence- used to determine if there is a correlation between two variables ( nominal type)

Z test of independent proportions- used to determine if there is a significant differences between two independent or different
groups that call for two types of responses

Formula:

Test of Difference (Means)

T test of independent means- used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of the two independent or
different groups

T test of dependent means- used to determine if there is a significant differences between the means of one groups (result of the
pre and post).

Two way analysis of variance ( ANOVA II)- used to determine if there is a significant differences between 2 or more groupsin terms
of means with 2 IVs and 1 DV (F test)

Research Instrument- Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research problems

Tools- researchers used to gather data for specific research problems

Data Collection Method- systematic process of gathering relevant information (ex. Survey, interview, experiment, observation,etc.)

1. Questionnaires - survey
2. Test - experiment
3. Observation sheet - observation
4. Interview guide – interview

Questionnaire- set or list of questions, Structured questionnaire: close ended, advantage: quick data collection, disadvantages:
understanding of the questions varies.

Test- used for measuring various skills and types of behavior, personality, achievement, etc. Standardized Test: test that is given to a
group of people such as students or professionals. Non Standardized Test: test that allows for an assessment of an individual abilities
or performance.

a. Recall question ( fill in the blank, identification test,etc.)

b. Recognition question ( multiple choice, true or false)
c. Open ended questions (essay, performance based)

Observation Sheet- a tool to record behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena by watching , listening, etc.

a. Controlled observation- contained environment (has control on the study variables)

b. Natural Observation- natural environment ( has a greater ecological validity but prone to extraneous variables)\
c. Participants observation- researcher become a complete observer or a participant in a study. Complete observer: neither
seen/noticed. Complete Participants: fully engages. Observer as Participant: neutral role. Participants as observer: full
interaction

Interview Guide- quantitative interviews/ survey. Structured: survey style question and answer format

Classification of Developed Research Instrument

1. Standardized Research Instrument

2. Modified Research instrument
3. Researcher Made Instrument

Validity- research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. Face Validity: ‘’logical validity’’.
Content Validity: objectives of the study.

Reliability- it refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument. Test Retest Reliability; giving the same test to the
same group of respondents twice. Equivalent Forms Reliability: administering two identical test except for wordings the same group
of respondents.
Descriptive Research- It is a design that is exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive research is basically to answer questions
such as who, what, where, when, and how much. So, this design is best used when the main objective of the study is just to observe
and report a certain phenomenon as it is happening.
Correlational Research- The main goal of this design is to determine if variable increases or decreases as another variable increases
or decreases. This design seeks to establish an association between variables.

Ex Post Facto- If the objective of the study is to measure a cause from a pre-existing effect, the researcher has no control over the
variables in the research study.

Intervention or treatment- pertains to controlling or manipulating the independent variable in an experiment. It is assumed that the
changes in dependent variables were caused by the independent variable

treatment group- refers to the group subjected to treatment or intervention.

The group not subject to treatment or intervention is called the- control group

Quasi-Experimental- This research design aims to measure the causal relationship between variables. The effect measured is
considered to have occurred during the conduct of the current study. The partiality of quasi-experimental design comes from
assigning subjects, participants, or respondents into their groups.

Experimental Research-This research design is based on the scientific method called experiment with a procedure of gathering data
under a controlled or manipulated environment. It is also known as true experimental design since it applies treatment and
manipulation more extensively compared to quasi-experimental design

Population- is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is understood that this
population possesses common characteristics about which the research aims to explore.

actual population- is the target population

Sampling- pertains to the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get
information from a group that represents the target population

The representative subset of the population refers to the- sample.

Power Analysis. This approach is founded on the principle of power analysis. There are two principles you need to consider if you are
going to use this approach: these are statistical power and effect size.

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis is called -statistical power.

The level of difference between the experimental group and the control group refers to- effect size.
Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

Concise- good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.

Sequential- Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest to the most complex.

Valid and reliable- The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more appropriate and accurate information.
Easily tabulated- this factor should be considered These will be an important basis for making items in the research instruments.

Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research:

Likert Scale- This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked to rate or rank statements
according to the scale provided.
Semantic Differential- In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This scale seems to be more
advantageous since it is more flexible and easier to construct.

Types of Validity of Instrument

Face Validity- It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments as it “appear.”

Content Validity- An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study. It is done by checking the
statements or questions if this elicits the needed information
Construct Validity- It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study. It is concerning if
a specific measure relates to other measures

Concurrent Validity- When the instrument can predict results like those similar tests already validated,it has concurrent validity.

Predictive Validity- When the instrument can produce results similar to those similar tests that will be employed in the future, it has
predictive validity.

Reliability of Instrument

Test-retest Reliability- It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice. The consistency of the two
scores will be checked.

Equivalent Forms Reliability- It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same group of
respondents.

Internal Consistency Reliability- It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is reasonable that when a
respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also get one in similar items.

Steps in Describing the Research Intervention Process

Write the Background Information. It is an introductory paragraph that explains the relevance of the intervention to the study
conducted. It also includes the context and duration of the treatment.

Describe the Differences and Similarities between the Experimental and Control Group. State what will happen and what will not
both in the experimental and control groups. This will clearly illustrate the parameters of the research groups.

Describe the Procedures of the Intervention. Describe how will the experimental group receive or experience the condition. It
includes how will the intervention happens to achieve the desired result of the study. For example, how will the special tutorial
program will take place?

Explain the Basis of Procedures. The reason for choosing the intervention and process should clear and concrete reasons. The
researcher explains why the procedures are necessary.

Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

Observation. It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher records the observation as seen
and heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect observation using gadgets or apparatus.

Survey. Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you use series of questions or
statements that respondents will have to answer.

Experiment. When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous lesson that it would use treatment
or intervention.

Data gathering procedure: (1) before you will gather the data, (2) what to do during the actual gathering of data, and (3) the things
to consider after data has been gathered.

Data collection is a systematic process of gathering relevant information, observations, or measurements.

Graphs are visual representations which focuses on how a change in one variable affects to another. They are used to organize
information to show patterns and relationships.

Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains headings that indicate the most important
information about your study.

The Critical Value Approach is used to determine whether the observed test statistic is more extreme than a defined critical value

P-value Approach involves determining the probability (assuming the null hypothesis were true) of observing a more extreme test
statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis than the one observed.

• Data are bits of information or facts known by everyone.

• Quantitative data are measurable, numerical, and related to a metrical system.

• Data Collection is an activity that allows the researcher to obtain relevant information regarding the specified research questions
or objectives.

• Quantitative research instruments comprise questionnaires, interviews, tests, and observation.

• Questionnaire consists of a series of questions used for gathering information from respondents about a research topic.

• Tests are research instruments used for assessing various skills and types of behavior as well as for describing certain
characteristics.

• Quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and demographic
characteristics using numerical data.

• Observation is frequently used in qualitative research. It is also used in quantitative research when the characteristics being
observed are quantitative, such as length, width, height, weight, volume, area, temperature, cost, level, age, time, and speed.

• Google Forms is a free online form that enables the researcher to construct, administer, and analyze surveys.

• Informed Consent Form is a document that provides the participants with the information they need in deciding whether they will
participate or not in your study.

• Editing is a process wherein the collected data are checked for consistency, accuracy, organization, and clarity.

• Coding is a process wherein the collected data are categorized and organized. Labeling, using numbers, and symbols are also
applied.

• Tabulation is a process of arranging data into a table which can be done manually or electronically using MS Excel.

• Frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.

• Non-prose materials are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams, illustrations, drawings, and maps.

• Tables are non-prose materials that help condense and classify information using columns and rows.

• Positive Correlation- when both values have the same directions (increase or decrease)

• Negative Correlation-when one value increases, the other one decreases and vice versa.

• Pearson’s r (𝑟) is a statistical method used for determining whether there is a linear relationship between variables.

• Mean refers to the average score of the given set of values.

• Standard Deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance.

• Alpha level (𝜶) is also known as the significance level. It refers to the probability value

that must be reached before claiming that the findings obtained are statistically significant.

• P-value (𝒑) is a calculated probability that is compared to the alpha level. If the p-value

is lower than the set alpha level, there is a difference between the scores obtained for the

two groups (statistically significant)

• T-value (𝒕) is the statistic computed for the t-tests including the extent of the difference

between the two groups being examined

• Degree of Freedom (𝒅𝒇) refers to the number of values in the final computation of

statistic that has the freedom to vary.

• A Statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter

• In order to integrate all the components of the research study, the research design describes the overall strategy of the research.
Types of quantitative research are descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental research.

• Population refers to all the members of a particular group relevant to the research. Sample is a part of the population that serves
as a representative. Sample are chosen through sampling which is a process of selecting of who will participate. The usual sampling
procedures in quantitative research are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic
sampling.

• Research Instrument refers to the tools used in research for the purpose of gathering the data. Common scales used in quantitative
research are Likert Scale and Semantic Differential.

• It is important in quantitative research to use valid instruments. Validity refers to the appropriateness of the research instrument.
Types of validity are face, content, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.

• The consistency in research findings provided by instruments refers to reliability. Types of reliability are test-retest, equivalent
forms, and internal consistency.

• For quasi-experiment and experimental research designs, intervention is applied in order to know who will receive the
intervention and to what extent.

• Data gathering in quantitative research usually observes survey, observation, and experiment. There are three phases in data
gathering of research that need to be presented in the research paper: before, during, and after procedures.

• Data Analysis is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a manner that it will yield answers to the research
questions. There are two major statistical technique in data analysis, these are descriptive and inferential statistics