Lesson 1:Introduction to Statistics

Statistics is a scientific body of knowledge that deals with the collection, organization or presentation,
analysis and interpretation of data.

Collection refers to the gathering of information or data

Organization or Presentation involves summarizing data or information in textual, graphical, or tabular
forms
Analysis involves describing the data by statistical methods and procedures
Interpretation refers to the process of making conclusions based on the analyzed data

APPLICATION OF STATISTICS
In Business
Statistics is used to summarize and describe data that a business firm collects or gathers
such as the amount of sales, expenditures, and productions to enable the management to
understand and determine the status of the firm.

In Education
Through statistical tools, a teacher can determine the effectiveness of a teaching method
by analyzing test scores obtained by students.

In Psychology
Psychologists can interpret meaningful aptitude test, IQ tests, and other psychological
test using statistical procedure or tools.

In Politics and Government

Statistics is used in conducting surveys or opinions for public opinion and election polls.

In Medicine
Statistics is used to determine the effectiveness of new drug in a disease.

In Agriculture
Through statistical tools, an agriculturist can determine the effectiveness of a new fertilizer in the growth
of plants

In Entertainment
● the most favorite actress and actor can be determined by using surveys
● Ratings of the members of the board of judges in a beauty contest are statistically analyzed
● Interviews are used to determine the most widely viewed television show
● The top grosser movie for this year is reported based on statistical records

In Everyday Life
● The number of cars passing through the streets are recorded to enable traffic enforcers to
manage efficiently.
● The number of pedestrians crossing the street, the number of people entering a department
store, the number of people engaged in video games involve the use of statistics.

Lesson 2:HISTORY OF STATISTICS

In Ancient Egypt
The government prepared registration list of all the heads of the families.

In Ancient Judea
A census of the population was taken on several occasions, such as in 2030 B.C. when the population
was estimated at 3 800 000.
435 B.C.
The first Roman census was taken in the presence of the censors. Such census was repeated sixty-nine
times in the following 470 years of the Roman history.

Luke 2: 1-4
Now in those days was a degree went forth from Ceasar Augustus for all the inhabited earth to be
registered. This registration took place when Quirinus was a governor of Syria and all people went
travelling to be registered, each one to his own city. Of course, Joseph also went up from Galilee out of
the city of Nazareth into Judea to David’s city which is called Bethlehem, because of his being a member
of the house and the family of David.

MIDDLE AGES
When William the Conqueror took possession of England, he ordered that a survey be made of the lands
of England for purposes of taxation and military services. Taxes, military services and custom duties were
also recorded.

BEGINNING OF 16 TH CENTURY
A large number of Statistical handbooks were published. This type of descriptive statistics was referred to
as Die Tabellen Statistik. Captain John Graunt worked on the scientific analysis of publicly recorded
data. The registration of deaths was started by Henry VIII in 1532 and weekly bills of mortality were
instituted during the period of plague.

CONTRIBUTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF STATISTICS

Abraham De Moivre (1667-1754) discovered the equation of the normal curve

Karl Pearson, Marqauis de Laplace and Carl Freidrich Gauss independently worked on the methods
of finding correlation among several variables.

Sir Ronald Fisher discovered a unified theory for drawing conclusions from statistical data and
contributed to the theory of design experiments which provided a technique of collecting primary data.

Lesson 3: The Two Categories of Statistics and its Scales of Measurement

Descriptive Statistics summarizes or describes the important characteristics of a known set of data. It is
concerned with collecting, organizing, presenting and analyzing numerical data.
Examples:
● According to the Census Bureau, 20% of all Filipino workers get to work via carpool.
● According to the Court Administration of the Philippines, 14% of trial-ready civil actions and equity
cases in Metro Manila during 1993 were decided in less than six months (May 14, 1995)
● Cigarettes were associated with 29% of the 4, 470 civilian fire deaths in 1989
Inferential Statistics (Inductive Statistics) uses sample data to make inferences about population. It
consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing hypothesis testing, determining
relationships among variables and making predictions.
Examples:
● Predicting the life span of a mechanical toy gun is based on the performance of several similar
toy guns.
● The National Eye Institute has halted a clinical trial on a type of eye surgery calling it ineffective
and possibly harmful to a person’s vision.
● “Allergy Therapy may make bees go away.” (April 1995)
● The Gallup Poll says 1 out of 10 Filipinos is a member of a health club or fitness center.
● Drinking decaffeinated coffee can raise cholesterol levels by 7%. (Philippine Health Association)

Scales of Measurement
Why Is Level of Measurement Important?
● Helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that were assigned
● Helps you decide how to interpret the data from that variable
1. Nominal Scale- data that cannot be ordered nor can it be used in calculations
● The values “name” the attribute uniquely.
● The value does not imply any ordering of the cases
Examples:
● jersey numbers in football
● Categories
● Colors
● names

2. Ordinal Scale - data that can be ordered; the differences cannot be measured
● When attributes can be rank-ordered
● Distances between attributes do not have any meaning
Examples:
● finishing position in a race
● Educational Attainment as 0=less than H.S.; 1=some H.S.; 2=H.S. degree; 3=some college;
4=college degree; 5=post college

3. Ratio Scale- data with a starting point that can be ordered; the differences have meaning, and ratios
can be calculated.
● Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
● Can construct a meaningful ratio (fraction), for example, number of clients in past six months
● It is meaningful to say that “...we had twice as many clients in this period as we did in the
previous six months
Examples:
● Weight of 200 cancer patients in the past 5 months
● Height of 549 newborn babies
● Diameter of 150 donuts

4. Interval Scale - data with a definite ordering but no starting point; the differences can be measured,
but there is no such thing as a ratio.
● When distance between attributes has meaning
Example:
● Temperature scales like Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) ,distance from 30-40 is same as distance
from 70-80

Lesson 4: Categories of Data and Variables

● Population
-A collection of items of interest in research
-A complete set of things
-A group that you wish to generalize your research to
-An example – All the trees in Battle Park
● Sample
-A subset of a population
-The size smaller than the size of a population
-An example – 100 trees randomly selected from Battle Park
● Representative – An accurate reflection of the population (A primary problem in statistics)
● Variables – The properties of a population that are to be measured
● Constant – Something that does not vary
● Parameter – A constant measure which describes the characteristics of a population
● Representative – An accurate reflection of the population (A primary problem in statistics)
● Statistic – is a estimate of a parameter
● Data – are facts, or a set of information or observations under study.
● Variable – is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which makes the members
different from each other.
The Two Categories of Data
a. Qualitative data (Categorical Data) are data which can assume values manifest the concept of
attributes. Data falling in this category cannot be subjected to meaningful arithmetic operations. They
cannot be added,subtracted, or divided.
Examples:
● Nationality
● Ethnic group
● The car a person drives
● The street a person lives on

b. Quantitative data are data which are numerical in nature. These data are obtained from counting or
measuring. In addition meaningful arithmetic operations can be done with these type of data.
Examples:
● Test score
● Height and Weight
● Amount of money you have
● Number of students who take statistics

Lesson 5: The Four Classification of Data

Discrete Variable is one that can assume a finite number of values. In other words, it can assume
specific values only. The values of discrete variable are obtained through the process of counting.
Examples:
● Number of children in a household
● Number of languages a person speaks
● Number of people listening in Stat. class

Continuous variable is one that can assume infinite values within a specified interval. The values of the
variable are obtained through measuring.
Examples:
● Height of children
● Weight of cars
● Time to wake up in the morning
● Speed of the train
*Discrete data is counted, Continuous data is measured

Dependent Variable is a variable which is affected or influenced by another variable.

Independent Variable is one which affects or influences dependent variable.

Lesson 6: Techniques in Gathering Data

Primary sources of statistical data is an original source that documents an event in time, a person or
an idea. These are data from the government institutions, business agencies and other organizations.
Examples:
● data gathered from Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA).
● raw data
● original research (journal articles, books)
● diary entries, letters and other correspondence
● photographs, artifact

Secondary sources - build upon primary resources by analyzing, interpreting, synthesizing or discussing
them.
Examples:
● Books
● Encyclopedia
● Journals
● research or studies conducted by other individuals
Methods of Collecting Data
The Direct or Interview Method- It is one of the most effective method in collecting data. To obtain
accurate responses, the interview may be done by well – trained interviewers.
- It is a person-to-person encounter between the one soliciting the information and the interviewee
Examples:
● A business firm would interview residents of a certain barangay regarding their favorite brand of
toothpaste, soap or shoes.
● TV personnel would ask the tele viewers about their favorite noontime show.

The Indirect or Questionnaire Method- It is one of the easiest methods of gathering data. It takes time
to prepare because questionnaires need to be attractive. Its contents, especially the directions, must be
precise, clear, and self-explanatory. In this method, the researcher makes use of questionnaire which may
be distributed either by personal delivery or by mail.

Registration Method- Through this, the respondents provide information in compliance with certain
laws, policies, rules, regulations, decrees or standard practices.
Examples:
● marriage contracts
● birth certificates
● motor registrations
● license of firearms

Experimentation Method- An experiment is applied to collect data if the investigator wants to control the
factors that affecting the variable being studied.
Examples:
● How does the weather affect the growth of bacteria?
● Does the new brand of fertilizer increase the harvest of rice per hectare?

Focus groups- It uses open-ended questions. These questions ground the research in a state of mind
eliminating external interference.
Examples of open-ended questions:
● “How did you feel about the presentation?”

Oral histories- Is a precisely defined recording, preservation and interpretation of historical information
based on the experiences of people involved in the event. It is linked into a single phenomenon.
Example:
● A researcher studying the effect of a flood on a community.

Lesson 7: Sampling Techniques

Sampling Technique is a procedure used to determine the individuals or members of the
sample. It is used to answer the question concerning who will be included in the sample.
In Probability Sampling, every unit has a “chance” of being selected. While in non-probability
sampling, every item in a population does not have equal chance of being selected.

1. Simple Random Sampling

- It is the basic type of probability sampling. In this technique, each individual in the
population has an equal chance of being drawn. This can be done in two ways:

a. Lottery Method or fishbowl technique

Write the name of each person, object or thing on small slips of paper and deposit them
in a box. After they have been thoroughly mixed, the first pick is made, followed by another
until the sample size is chosen.
b. Table of Random Numbers
A computer can be programmed for this purpose. The table contains rows and columns
of digits randomly ordered by a computer. From the starting point, you may continue to any
direction as long as you are consistent with the route. Continue picking out the numbers until you get the
desired number of your sample

2. Systematic Random Sampling

- In this technique, the items or individuals are arranged alphabetically or other sort. A random starting
point is selected; and then every kth member will be the succeeding samples.
Examples:
a. If every 10th member is selected, then the samples would consist of the 10th, 20th, 30th,
and so on.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

- this technique is done through dividing the population into categories or strata and getting the members
at random proportionate to each stratum or sub-group.
Examples:
a. If the school administrator wishes to impose a new salary scale for his faculty, then the population
could be divided to the following strata: years of experience, teaching efficiency, educational attainment or
extra-curricular activities.

4. Cluster Sampling (Area Sampling)

- It can be done by subdividing the population into smaller units then selecting only at random the primary
units where the study would then be concentrated. It is sometimes referred to as an “area sampling''
because it is frequently applied on a geographical basis.
Example:
In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings are interviewed whether they believe the students
have less homework to do now than in previous years.

Lesson 8: Presentation of Data by Textual Method

Data can be classified into two:
Ungrouped data
● are also known as raw data
● are data that are not organized.
● are the which has not been put in any of the categories.

Grouped data
● are data that are organized.
● are the which are categorized and put into different classes.

Textual Method- One of the ways on how to present data is through textual method or paragraph
Method. In this method, data are presented by enumerating the characteristics, features, and significant
figures of the data.

Stem-and-Leaf Plot is a table which sorts a data into a pattern, separating a number into two parts.

Lesson 9: Presentation of Data by Tabular Method

Frequency – is how often something occurs.
Frequency Distribution table – is a table which shows the data arranged into different classes and the
number of cases of each class.
Parts of the frequency Distribution Table
1. Table Number
2. Table Title
3. Column Header
4. Row Classifier
5. Body
6. Source Note

Frequency Distribution Table for Ungrouped Data – is an arrangement of data from lowest to highest
which shows the frequency of occurrence of each value in a set.

Frequency Distribution Table for Grouped Data – is an arrangement of data into different classes or
categories. It also involves counting the data fall into each class.

Lesson 9: Features of Frequency Distribution Table

Class Intervals or Class Limits refers to the grouping defined by a lower limit and an upper limit.
example:
Class interval of 5 and 9 (5,6,7,8,9)
Lower limit : 5
Upper limit : 9

Class Boundaries
- known as real or true class limits.
- more accurate expressions of class limits by at least 0.5

Class Marks
- is the midpoint or middle value of a class interval.

Class Size
- refers to the difference between the upper class boundary and the lower class boundary of a class
interval.
Example: Class size of the class boundaries 4.5 and 9.5 is 5

Class Frequency
- means the number of observations belonging to a class interval.

Range
- refers to the difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Lesson 10: Constructing Frequency Distribution Table

Simple Frequency distribution table – it consists of class interval and frequency only.
Complete Frequency distribution table – it consists of class mark, frequency and class boundaries of
each class.

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

1. Solve for the number of classes if it is not given. If the desired number of classes is given, avoid using
fewer than 6 or more than 15 classes.
2. Compute for the Range
3. Determine the class width or class size (i)
* If the data is in whole number, i should be in whole number and if the data is in one decimal place, i
should be in one decimal place.
4. Unless otherwise specified, always start the lowest class with the lowest value of the raw data.
5. Add (i -1) to the Lower limit to get the Upper Limit of each class interval
6. Tally the frequencies of each class, until the highest value is reached
Lesson 11: Relative Frequency Distribution and Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Relative frequency distribution - is a table which lists the relative frequencies of the classes.

Cumulative frequency distribution

- is a table which shows the number of cases falling below a particular value.
- is a form of a frequency distribution that represents the sum of a class and all classes below it.

Lesson 12: Graphical Method

Types of Graph:
1. Bar Graph – is a graph presented by either vertical or horizontal rectangles whose bases represent the
class intervals and whose heights represent the frequencies

2. Histogram– is a graph represented by vertical or horizontal rectangles whose bases are the class
marks and whose heights are the frequencies.

3. Frequency Polygon – is a line graph whose bases are the class marks and whose heights are the
frequencies.The class marks are plotted against the frequencies and the points are connected by a
smooth curve.

4. Pie Chart – is a circle graph showing the properties of each class through either the relative or
percentage frequency.

5. Ogive – is a line graph where the bases are the class boundaries and the heights are the <cf for less
them ogive and >cf greater than ogive.