Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Graduate School
FLVARGAS
Janet R.Galapon,PhD.
Professor
Introduction :
Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the
collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation,
and organization of data. I
- Is a branch of science that deals with the
collection, tabulations or presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical or quantitative data.
- Kendall and Stuart state : statistics is the branch of
scientific method which deals with the data
obtained by counting or measuring the properties
of populations.
Statistics deals with all aspects of data including
the planning of data collection in terms of the
design of surveys , experiments and investigation.
4.) Interpretation
It refers to the process of making
conclusions based on the analyzed data.
• Why do we need to
study statistics?
In Business
d. Independent Variable
It is one which affects or influences the
dependent variable.
2. Qualitative or Categorical variable - a
variable that cannot assume a numerical but
can be classified into rows or more
nonnumeric categories. The data collected
about such a variable are called qualitative
data.
Examples: sex - male , female
year level – 1st year, 2nd year
Qualitative or Quantitative
•number of students in school
•civil status
•nationality
•body mass index
•kinds of poetry
•number of siblings
•number of hours playing online games
•speed of light
7. Constant
It is a property or characteristics of a
population or sample, which makes the
members of the group similar to each other.
Scales of Measurement
Measurement – assignment of symbols or numerals
to objects or events according to some rules.
The Four Measurements Scales
1. Nominal Scale –comes from latin word “nomen”
which means ‘name’.
*used to distinguish one object from another for
identification purposes
*cannot be quantified or ranked
Example : gender , nationality
• 2. Ordinal Scale – applies to data that are
divided into different categories that can be
ranked.
• ( good, poor, excellent), of siblings in the
family; of honor students in the class.
3. Interval Scale – applies to data that can be
ranked or ordered
* can specify the amount of difference
* no point of reference which is called an
absolute
Example : Scores in an examination
To illustrate, suppose Maria got 50 in a Math
examination while Martha got 40. We can say
that Maria got higher than Martha by 10 points.
4. Ratio Scale
Similar to an interval
the only difference is that the ratio level always
starts from an absolute or true zero point.
there is always the presence of units of measure.
Ex. Weight
suppose Mrs.Reyes weighs 50kg, while her
daughter weighs 25kg. We can say that Mrs.Reyes
is twice as heavy as her daughter .
Determining Sample Size
n = N /(1 + Ne)
Elementary 2500
College 4500
N= 16500
• Cluster Sampling
sampling wherein groups or clusters instead
of individuals are randomly chosen:
- area sampling
• Non-Probability Sampling
- is a sampling technique wherein members
of the sample are drawn from the population
based on the judgment of the researcher .
- is also called subjective sampling
* convenience sampling
* Quota Sampling
* Purposive Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
- samples are determined based on
convenient, availability, proximity or
accessibility to the researcher.
• Quota Sampling
- samples are determined with the same
percentage ( as that of startified) but not done
randomly.
• Snowball sampling
- a member of the sample is chosen
through referral of the other members of the
sample.
• Modal Instance sampling
- members of the sample are selected
based on the typical, most frequent
observation or modal cases .
Summation Notation
Summation notation is used to denote the sum of values. The
notation ∑ in this expression represents the sum of all the
values of x.
Example. 1. Find the ages of four managers are 35, 47, 28 and 60
years.
∑x = 35 + 47 + 28 + 60 = 170
2. The following table 1 lists four pairs of A and B values:
A = 12, 17, 22, 32
B= 7, 11, 12, 18
Compute the sum of the following:
a. ∑A b. ∑ B c. ∑AB d. ∑A²B e. ∑ (A -5) ²B
Table 1
A B AB A²B (A-5)²B
12 7 84 1008 343
17 11 187 3179 1584
22 12 264 5808 3468
32 18 576 18432 13122
∑A=83 = 48 =1111 =28427 18517
• Quiz no. 1. Complete the table 2 below:
X Y Y² XY X²Y
10 3
13 7
18 8
28 14
Chapter 1
Frequency Distribution and Graphical Presentation
2.75 5.5
3 4 5 6
122.5-127.5 123-127
117.5- 122.5 118-122
112.5-117.5 113-117
107.5- 112.5 108-112
102.5-107.5 103-107
97.5-102.5 98-102
92.5-97.5 93-97
87.5-92.5 88-92
82.5-87.5 83-87
77.5-82.5 78-82
72.5-77.5 73-77
67.5-72.5 68-72
4. Tally the data
To tally the data, locate the scores to its proper class
limit and tally. After tallying, count the number of
tallies and write it under Frequency (f) or column 4
of table 1.3. the tally must be carefully checked to
determine if it is equal to the total number of cases
N. if tally is not equal to the number of cases N,
tallying is reviewed or repeated to arrive at exact N
total number of cases. At the bottom of column 4
(f), symbol N or ∑f stands for the “sum of” equals to
72 or the total number of cases; column 1, real
limit; column 2, integral limit; column 3,tally; and
column 4, frequency f.
Real Limit Integral Limit Tally frequency (f)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Table 1.3
122.5-127.5 123-127
117.5-122.5 118-122
112.5-117.5 113-117
107.5-112.5 108-112
102.5-107.5 103-107
97.5-102.5 98-102
92.5-97.5 93-97
87.5-92.5 88-92
82.5-87.5 83-87
77.5-82.5 78-82
72.5-77.5 73-77
67.5-72.5 68-72
TOTAL
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Most often, cumulative frequency
distribution is desired to determine the
number or percentage of values “greater
than≥” or “less than ≤” a specified value. The
cumulative frequencies are obtained by
cumulating or adding successively individual
frequencies starting from the bottom for
“lesser than” or at the top for greater than.
For instance, Table 1.4 cumulative frequency
lesser than (CF≤) of column 4, the frequency at
the bottom class limit, 68-72, is 4; class limit
73-77,11; 4+11 = 15. This process continues
until the topmost class limit,123-127, is
reached and cumulative frequency lesser than
is equal to the number of cases N or 72. For
CF≥ (is greater than) of column 5, starting from
the topmost class limit ,123-127 has frequency
of 1; 118-112, has frequency of 1; 1+1=2 and so
on until the bottom class limit, 68-72 is reached
and is equal to 72 or total number of cases.
Table 1.4- Cumulative Frequency Distribution of
Lesser than and Greater than
Real limit Integral limit Tally Frequency CF lesser than CF greater than
11 2 3 4 5 6
Cumulative percentage frequency
Cumulative percentage frequency is obtained by
dividing the cumulative frequency by the total
number of cases N times 100. the formula is as
follows:
CPF = CF x 100
N
Where : CPF = cumulative percentage frequency
CF = cumulative Frequency
N = total number of cases
Given: highest class limit 123-127, CF= 72, N= 72
CPF≤ = CF≤ x 100
= 72 x 100
72
CPF≤ =100%
The cumulative percentage frequency lesser
than (CPF≤) of second highest class limit, 118-
122, has CF≤ 0f 71, thus, 71/72=0.983 .
This means that 98.31 percent of the students
have scores of 122 and below. For third
highest class limit,113-117, has CF≤ of 70,
hence, CPF≤ is 70/72=0.97222 x 100=97.22
percent. This means that 97.22 percent of the
students have scores of 117 and below. This
process continues until the lowest class
limit,68-72,is reached.
• For cumulative percentage frequency greater
than (CPF≥) highest class limit of 123-127, the
CF≥ is 1 divided by 72 equals
1/72=0.0138889x100=1.39 percent; second
highest class limit, 118-122,has cumulative
frequency greater than (CF≥) of 2,hence,
cumulative percentage frequency greater than
is 2 divided by 72 equals 2/72=0.0777778 x
100=7.78%. This means that7.78percent of
the students have scores of 122 and above.
This process continues until the lowest class
limit is reached.
Table 6.5 presents the distribution of cumulative
percentage frequency “lesser than” and
“greater than”.
Integral(CL) Absolute(f) CF≥ CF≤ CPF≥ CPF≤
4 5 6 7 8
72 72/72X100=
100
71 98.61
70 97.22
69 .95.83
63 87.50
58 80.55
53 73.61
45 62.5
35 48.61
25 34.72
15 20.83
4 5.55
Seatwork no.1
Compute for the range, frequency, cumulative
frequency greater than and lesser than, and the
cumulative percentage greater then and lesser
than of the following scores of 30 students in
Statistics.
75 50 76 42 75 88
76 58 86 48 79 105
85 98 79 52 89 100
86 110 83 55 91 68
90 67 93 65 93 78
• R= HS-LS
= 110-42
=68
68/10=6.8
68/20=3.4 3.4 6.8
3---4---5----6---7
7/2=3.5
110+3.5=113.5
110-3.5=106.5
REAL LIMIT INTEGRAL LIMIT TALLY FREQUENCY CF≤ CF≥ CPF≤ CPF≥
92.5-99.5 93-99 3 3 27 6
85.5-92.5 86- 92 6 6 24 12
78.5-85.5 79-85 4 4 18 16
71.5-78.5 72-78 5 5 14 21
64.5-71.5 65-71 3 3 9 24
57.5-64.5 58-64 1 1 6 25
50.5-57.5 51-57 2 2 5 27
43.5- 50.5 44 – 50 2 3 29
36.5 – 43.5 37 -43 1 1 30
• Quiz no. 2
• Given below are the scores of 44 students in
Science.
2 17 8 7 18 11 2 18 13
3 22 11 23 16 30 10 8 5
19 22 19 12 26 9 13 17 8
21 6 4 8 8 18 22 12 18
2 21 12 8 15 8 13 8
Real Integral midpoint tally frequenry cf≤ cf≥ cpf≤ cpf≥
limit limit
1. Construct a frequency distribution with the
following columns:
a. real limit
b. integral limit
c. midpoint
d. tally
e. frequency (f)
f. cumulative frequency lesser than ( CF≤ )
g. cumulative frequency greater than ( CF≥ )
h. cumulative percentage frequency (CPF ≤
and CPF ≥)
Graphic Representation of Frequency
Distribution
A graph is geometric image or a mathematical
picture of a set of data. For this purpose, line
graph and bar graph are commonly used in
thesis, dissertation, and research paper in
presenting the data.
Frequency distribution are often presented
graphically to give the researchers and readers
understandable essential features of the form
of distribution and to compare one frequency
distribution with the other. The graphical
representation is based on tables.
Tabular form is a systematic arrangement of
research data in rows and columns. Each
category in the table is placed in a row or column
and the data are assigned in suitable cells.
Row in a table refer to an horizontal line, while
column refer to a vertical line
A good research data table consists of four parts;
1. Table caption
2. Stub
3. Box heads
4. body
1.Table caption- includes the table number and
heading. The caption explains briefly the contents of
the table. Table caption is written above the body.
2. Stub – this refers to rows of the table where it is
found at the left side. example, class limit, 123-127
and so on.
3. Box heads- these are headings within the box of the
table wherein the data are to be emphasized. The
box heads are midpoint, frequency, CF, CFP.
4. Body of the table-refers to the main part of the
table consisting of figures which are placed in
column aligned with the box heads . (data under
each box heads)
• Table 1.1. ( table caption)
Frequency Distribution with Midpoints and
cumulative Frequencies lesser than and Greater than
of Research Scores Taken by 72 Teacher Education
students in certain state University
* Stub refers to rows of the table(5 rows)
Stub1 Heading2 Heading3 Heading4 Heading5
Column 1 Column 2
Profit ( thousand ) 10 12 18 25 42
2. Draw a multiple bar chart to represent the
import and export of Canada ( Value in $ )for
the years 1991 to 1995.
YEARS IMPORTS EXPORTS