Introduction

Statistics is the body of techniques used to facilitate the collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data for the purpose of making better decisions and making inferences
from the data gathered.

Some of the uses and functions of Statistics are:

 It helps getting the number of sample respondents;
 It helps in providing comparisons;
 It helps in explaining actions which occur;
 It helps in summarizing data for public use;
 It helps in justifying a claim or an assertion; and
 It helps in predicting future outcomes.

TWO MAJOR AREAS OF STATISTICS

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

• Involves collecting data, organizing or summarizing
data and presenting data
• Purpose
– Describe the situation
 Example:
• EXAMPLE 1: A survey conducted by the Financial
Post Magazine found that 50.08% of the people
wanted to vote “no” in the past Quebec referendum.
The statistic 50.08% describes the proportion of voters
who wanted to stay in Canada.
• EXAMPLE 2: According to Consumer Reports,
Whirlpool washing machine owners reported 9
problems per 100 machines during a year. The
statistic 9 describes the number of problems out of
every 100 machines.
• Involves estimation and hypothesis testing
• Purpose
– Draw conclusions or inferences about
population’s characteristics
 Example:
• EXAMPLE 1: Fuel efficiency of a make and
model is determined by sampling a few cars.
• EXAMPLE 2: The time required by a robot to do
a repetitive task must is determined by a few
sample observation.
• EXAMPLE 3: Strength of steel must is
determined by a laboratory experiment.

VARIABLES - properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can take on different
values or amounts. For example, sex; it can take two values: female or male.

TYPES OF VARIABLES:
a. Qualitative and Quantitative Variables
 Qualitative variables (categorical variables) are those that express a qualitative attribute
such as hair color, eye color, religion, favorite movie, gender, and so on. The values do
not imply a numerical ordering
 Quantitative variables are those variables that are measured in terms of numbers. Some
examples of quantitative variables are height, weight, and shoe size.
b. Discrete and Continuous Variables. Variables such as number of children in a household are
called discrete variables since the possible scores are discrete points on the scale. Assume
values that can be counted. For example, a household could have three children or six children,
but not 4.53 children. Other variables such as “time to respond to a question” are continuous
variables since the scale is continuous and not made up of discrete steps. Can assume all
values between any two specific values. They are obtained by measuring. The response time
could be 1.64 seconds, or it could be 1.64237123922121 seconds.

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 c. Independent and Dependent Variables
 When a variable is manipulated by an experimenter, it is called an independent variable.
 While dependent variables are variables assumed to be affected by independent
variable. In general, the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter and its
effects on the dependent variable are measured. For example, the effect of a
commercialized fertilizer to the growth of a particular plant. The independent variable will
be the amount of fertilizer applied, while the dependent variable is the growth of the plant
after the fertilizer was applied.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement refers to the procedure of assigning numerals (type of scale) to variables according to
rules.
Types of Scales:
a. Nominal scales. When measuring using a nominal scale, one simply names or categorizes
responses. Gender, handedness, favorite color, and religion are examples of variables measured
on a nominal scale.
b. Ordinal scales. Unlike nominal scales, ordinal scales allow comparisons of the degree to which
two subjects possess the dependent variable. For example, a researcher wishing to measure
consumers' satisfaction with their microwave ovens might ask them to specify their feelings as
either “very dissatisfied,” “somewhat dissatisfied,” “somewhat satisfied,” or “very satisfied.” The
items in this scale are ordered, ranging from least to most satisfied.
c. Interval scales. Interval scales are numerical scales in which intervals have the same
interpretation throughout. In particular, they do not have a true zero point. As an example,
consider the Fahrenheit scale of temperature. The difference between 30 degrees and 40
degrees represents the same temperature difference as the difference between 80 degrees and
90 degrees. This is because each 10-degree interval has the same physical meaning (in terms of
the kinetic energy of molecules).
d. Ratio scales. The ratio scale of measurement is the most informative scale. It is an interval scale
with the additional property that its zero position indicates the absence of the quantity being
measured.

POPULATION, SAMPLE and DATA

A population is the set of all objects under study, a sample is any subset of a population, and a
data point is an element of a set of data.
Example: Population, sample, data point
Population: all BPSU students
Sample: 1000 randomly selected BPSU students
Data: 10,15,13,25,22,53,47
Data point: 13
Data point: 53

Slovin’s Formula – commonly used to compute the sample size from a given population.
Where: N = size of the population
N n = sample size
n= 2
1+ N e e = margin error (1% - 5%)
Example: Slovin’s Formula
If you want to make a study on the job satisfaction of teachers in all campuses of Bataan
Peninsula State University with the HRD director providing you 600 names, and if you are willing
to accept a margin of error of 5%, how many names must you take from the population?

N
Solution: n=
1+ N e 2
600
n=
1+600 (.05)2

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 n=240 names (sample size)

DATA or STATISTICAL DATA – it refers to the gathered information of the researcher that are
presented, analyzed and interpreted.
• Qualitative data – involves attributes, such as sex, occupation, location or some other category.
• Quantitative data – represents the quantity or amount of something, such as length (in Centimeters),
weight (in kilograms) etc.
a. Nominal data – Data that can only be classified into categories and cannot be arranged in an
ordering scheme. Examples are eye color, gender, marital status, religious affiliation, etc.
b. Ordinal data – Data or categories that can be ranked; that is, one category is higher than
another. However, numerical differences between data values cannot be determined. Example,
ratings, 80 excellent, 70 good, 60 fair.
c. Interval data – The distance between numbers is a known, constant size, but the zero value is
arbitrary. Examples: Temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.
d. Ratio data – Data possessing a natural zero point and organized into measures for which
differences are meaningful. Examples: Money, income, sales, profits, losses, heights of NBA
players

I. COLLECTING AND ORGANIZING DATA

A vital part of working with Statistics is gathering the information, recording it, and then presenting
it so that it can be understood easily and used by other people. This is called data handling.
The process of data handling is summarized in the diagram below.

DATA COLLECTION – the first step in any statistical process, which is gathering the facts and figures
(the data) needed for the research.

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 a. Observation and measurement/experiment. Collecting data using observation or measurement
involves looking at something that actually happens, and then measuring and recording it. An
example observation is counting of cars passing the gate of your school every hour. An example
of measurement is measuring the masses of all students in your class.
b. Interview. An interview usually takes place between two people. One of the people is called the
interviewer and the other is the interviewee or respondent. We use interviews when we can talk to
the respondents directly. Example, job and parent-teacher interviews for collecting data.
c. Questionnaire. It is a set of questions given to many people to complete. A questionnaire is
useful for getting information from many people, as it can be handed out and then collect later,
and does not need an interviewer. The best method of collecting data when you want to ask a
large group of people what they think about a specific issue. A questionnaire should have a short
explanation of what your research is about.
d. Database. It is an organized collection of data that someone else has already organized and
presented. Database can be stored on a computer or on the internet, or presented in publications
such as books, newspapers and magazines.

II. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

After the data has been collected, the next step is organizing the data, by bringing it together in a
systematics way that makes it easier to read. We can organize by using tallies and frequency tables.

a. TALLIES
Tallies are a way of counitng by drawing a short vertical line to record each item as you count it. To
make reading the tally marks easier, for every fifth mark, you draw a diagonal line through the first four
lines as shown in the table below for the number 5. Then leave a space before starting on th next
group of four tally marks, as shown for the number 8, 10 and 12. The table shows the tally marks for a
few member.

The advantage of using tallies is that you can keep a running total while you are counting, and
tally tables are easy to read because you can count in fives.
Here is an example of tally table showing the numbers of cars of different colors that have been
counted. Each car that is counted is shown by one tally mark.

From these tallies, we can see that 7 red cars, 3 green cars, 4 blue
cars and 2 yellow cars were counted.

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b. FREQUENCY TABLES
Data are usually organized in the form of a frequency table shows the counts (frequencies) of
individual categories. The frequency is how many times the event occurred. Our understanding of the
data is further enhanced by calculation of proportion (relative frequency) of observations in each
category.

Example IIb.1:
A campus press polled a sample of 280 undergraduate students in the order study student
attitude towards a proposed change in the dormitory regulations. Each student was to respond as
support, oppose, or neutral in regard to the issue. The numbers were 152 support, 77 neutral, and 51
opposed. Tabulate the results and calculate the relative frequencies for the three response categories.

Note: If you want to compute for the percentage (%), just multiply the relative frequency by 100.

Example IIb.2. Ungrouped data.

Given the following set of data, we would like to create a frequency distribution.
1 57 8 2 3 7 2 87
To do this we will count up the data by making a tally (a tick mark in the tally column for each
occurrence of the data point. As before, we will designate the data points by x.

Now we add a columns for the frequency and the percentage, this will simply be the number of
tick marks for each data point. We will also total the number of data points. As we have done previously,
we will represent the frequency with f.

x Tally Frequency (f) Percentage

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 (frequency/total)*100
1 I 1 10 %
2 II 2 20%
3 I 1 10%
4 0 0%
5 I 1 10%
6 0 0%
7 III 3 30%
8 II 2 20%
Tota
10 10 100%
l

Example IIb.3. Grouped Data.

Given the following set of data, we want to organize the data into groups. We have decided that
we want to have 5 intervals.

Since we want to group the data, we will need to find out the size of each interval. To do this we
must first identify the highest and the lowest data point. In our data the highest data point is 38 and the
lowest is 18. Since we want 5 intervals, we make the computation

Since we need to include all points, we always take the next highest integer from that which was
computed to get the length of our interval. Since we computed 4, the length of our intervals will be 5. Now
we set up the first interval. Then tally the data, and complete the table.
Relative
x Tally Frequency (f)
Frequency (%)
18 – 22 IIIIIII 7 35 %
23 – 27 IIIII 5 25%
28 – 32 IIII 4 20%
33 – 37 II 2 10%
38 – 42 II 2 10%
Total 20 20 100%

III. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Once data has been collected, it has to be classified and organized in such a way that it becomes
easily readable and interpretable that is, converted to information. Before the calculation of descriptive
statistics, it is sometimes a good idea to present data as tables, charts, diagrams or graphs. Most people
find ‘pictures’ much more helpful than ‘numbers’ in the sense that, in their opinion, they present data more
meaningfully.

a. Tabular Form - This type of information occurs as individual observations, usually as a table or
array of disorderly values. These observations are to be firstly arranged in some order (ascending

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 or descending if they are numerical) or simply grouped together in the form of a frequency table
before proper presentation on diagrams is possible.

Example IIIa.1: Simple Table

A table needs a heading and the names
of the variables involved. We can also use
symbols to represent the variables at times,
provided they are sufficiently explicit for the
reader. Optionally, the table may also
include totals or percentages (relative
figures).

Example IIIa.2: Complex Table

A compound table is just an extension of a
simple in which there are more than one
variable distributed among its attributes (sub-
variable). An attribute is just a quality,
property or component of a variable according
to which it can be differentiated with respect to
other variables.
We may refer to a compound table as a
cross tabulation or even to a contingency
table depending on the context in which it is
used.

b. Line Graphs - A line graph is usually meant for showing the frequencies, trends, for various
values of a variable. Successive points are joined by means of line segments so that a glance at
the graph is enough for the reader to understand the distribution of the variable.

Example IIIb.1: Simple Line Graph

Using the data below,

We can generate the following line graph,

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 Example IIb.2: Multiple Line Graph - illustrate information on several variables so that comparison
is possible between them.
Consider the following table containing information on the ages of first-year students
attending courses the University of Mauritius (UoM), the De Chazal du Mée Business School
(DCDMBS) and the University of Technology of Mauritius (UTM) respectively.

This data, when displayed on a multiple line graph, enables a comparison between the
frequencies for each age among the institutions (maybe in an attempt to know whether younger
students prefer to enroll for courses at one of these institutions).

c. Pie Charts - The pie chart is constructed by dividing a circle into two or more sections or slices.
The chart is used to show the proportion that each part is of the whole. Hence, it should be used
when you want to compare individual categories with the whole. The pie chart follows the
principle that the angle of each of its sectors should be proportional to the frequency of the class

that it represents. (angle = ( totaln )∗360 ° )

Example IIIc.1: (refer to the data in Example IIb.1)

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 Bar Chart/ Bar Graph - The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting data in
a visual form. Its main purpose is to display quantities in the form of bars. A bar chart consists of
a set of bars whose heights are proportional to the frequencies that they represent.

Example IIId.1: Simple Bar Chart

Graduate students in a counseling course were asked to choose one of their personal habits that
needed improvement. In order to reduce the effect of this habit, they were asked to first gather data on
the frequency of occurrence and the circumstances. One student collected the following frequency data
on fingernail biting over a two-week period.

Example IIId.2: Multiple Bar Chart

Consider the data given,

The data will generate a multiple bar chart,

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d. Histogram - Out of several methods of presenting a frequency distribution graphically, the
histogram is the most popular and widely used in practice. A histogram is a set of vertical bars
whose areas are proportional to the frequencies of the classes that they represent.

Take Note: The histogram should be clearly distinguished from the bar chart. The most striking
physical difference between these two diagrams is that, unlike the bar chart, there are no ‘gaps’
between successive rectangles of a histogram.

Example IIIe.1: Consider the set of data in which represents the ages of workers of a private
company. The real limits and mid-class values have already been computed.

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 Activity Sheet
I. Decide whether the data collection techniques consists of a survey, an observational study or
an experiment. Explain your answer.

1. Nick stood outside a movie theater and ask many of the patrons if the movies they saw was good.

2. Elise gave each member of the class a random cookie, some from recipe A and some from recipe
B. Then she observed which students returned for a second cookie.

3. Steven observed students enter a classroom for class, and recorded whether the first half of the
students who arrived for class chose to sit in the front half of the room.

4. Jill searched the internet to find comments and interviews from people who owned the type of
cellphone she was thinking of buying.

II. Construct frequency table for each of the following: (Includes tally, frequency and percentage)

1. 4 , 3 ,6 , 5 , 2 , 4 , 3 ,3 ,6 , 4 , 2, 3 , 2 ,2 , 3 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 , 4 , 2, 3 , 4

2. 6 , 7 , 5 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,6 ,8 , 7 , 9 , 6 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 6 , 5

III. Answer the following questions.

School A started a recycling projects. The bar chart below shows the number of kilograms of
each Category School A recycled last week.

a. Of which item did the school collect the

most, in kilograms?
b. For which item did the school collect7 kg
?
c. Of which item did the school collect the
least, in ilograms.

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Page 12 of 17
 Assessment

Represent the following data with an appropriate graphical representation.

1. Given is the distribution of the monthly family budget of a person X.

Food = Php5,000
House Rent = Php 2,500
Entertainment = Php1,000
Savings = Php1,000
Education = Php 4,000
Transportation = Php1,500

2. The following table give the information about a patient’s body temperature recorded in a hospital
every hour.

Time 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 nn 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm
Temperatur
e
35 ℃ 36 ℃ 38 ℃ 36.5 ℃ 39 ℃ 36.5 ℃ 37 ℃

3. Create a frequency distribution table and represent by a graph the following table

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 Assignment

A. Conduct a survey to 50 students about their favorite fast food chain. List down all the answers
that will be gathered. Then, organize it using a frequency table and present it by a graphical
representation. Explain what and why you use the specific graphical representation for your collected
data.

B. Suppose you were given Php 20,000 salary for one month, breakdown the given amount to all the
expenses you have (example food, savings etc.) Then create a graphical representation of your data.

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REFERENCES

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