INTRODUCTION
In any research activity be it quantitative or
qualitative, a conclusion has to be made. In the
process of reaching it. pertinent data or information
has to be gathered and a plan should be conceived
as its "blue print". Included in this plan, which
intends to give meaning to the data, are the
statistical methods to be utilized in the research
activity.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION
● Analysis is the manipulation of the data
gathered using descriptive and inferential
statistics.
● Cumulative frequency is used in getting
the value for the median, quartiles, deciles,
and percentiles.
● Data point to statistical facts, principles,
opinions and variousitems of different
sources.
● Data collection is the process and methods
of gathering information by interview,
questionnaire, experiments, observation
and documentary analysis,
● Data presentation takes the form of tables
and graphs.
● Descriptive statistics includes frequency
distribution, measures of central tendency,
measures of central location, measures of
dispersion or variation, graphs, skewness
and kurtosis. Likewise, it refers to some
techniques which are concerned with the
presentation and collection of data or
information.
● Frequency distribution is the tabulation of
data of measures. grouped with class
interval.
● Graphical presentation points to the
construction of bar graphs, frequency
polygons, pie charts and pictographs,
among others.
● Grouped data are properly organized and
classified data such as the use of frequency
distribution.
● Inferential statistics is the technique by
which decision and conclusion are to be
made from the population observed using
only the representative samples. This
statistics includes both parametric and
nonparametric tests which are more
concerned with generalizing information or
making inference about the population
through representative samples.
● Interpretation makes clear results of the
analysis using statistical methods to see
whether significant differences or
relationships exist between variables.
● Parameter is a characteristic of a
population.
● Population is the totality of all the actual
observable characteristics of a set of
objects or individuals.
● Random sampling involves the selection of
samples such that each sample of a given
size has precisely the probability of being
selected. It includes the simple random,
stratified, cluster and multistage sampling
techniques.
● Sample refers to the element of objects or
individuals selected from the population.
● Schedule is the extensive set of question
and instruction used in personal interview.
● Statistics is the art and science of
collecting, presenting. analyzing and
interpreting data. These data may be in
sports, business, politics, education and
practically all fields of human endeavor
dealing with statistics.
THE USE AND IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS
● Statistics as another field of discipline is not
only useful but very much important to all of
us. Take for instance, from the time a child
is born or even during his conception, lots of
data are taken and analyzed. His weight,
length, measure of the chest and many
more. As the child grows older, more data
are taken regarding his characteristics and
personality.
● Statistical methodology may be classified
into two major functions: the descriptive and
the inferential statistics.
● For instance each student entering as first
year in a certain university has a folder
which contains the scores of the admission
test, result of the physical examination, and
scores based upon interest and personality
inventories. As a whole, these individual
folders, show mass information about the
students. To know about the whole class, all
these data must be studied. To present
these data, frequency distribution will be
used. To get their result in the admission
test on a mental ability test, measures of
central tendency and central location will be
used.
 ● Likewise, measures of variation will be used
to find out the variation among the students
in the examination result. We can draw
graphs that would show the difference
between male and female or we can show
how many students are above average,
average and below average through graphs.
● These are some of the reasons for studying
statistics other than collection and
presentation of data but knowing how to use
the subject in a research task.
● Knowledge of statistics is basic in
understanding articles published in
newspapers, scientific magazines, and
modern texts in science. A candidate in an
election can be predicted by means of poll
survey or exit poll survey. Games of chance
are the result of statistical probability.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF STATISTICS
Statistics has been used by the ancient chief in
counting the number of effective warriors to defeat
the enemy since wars before were won by the
number of trained warriors, the ruler also figured
out how much taxes will be collected to maintain
their kingdom. These statistics are purely
descriptive in nature.
In the seventeenth towards the eighteenth
centuries, mathematicians were asked by gamblers
to develop principles that would improve the
chances of winning at cards, dices, and coins.
Bernoulli and De Moivre were the two
mathematicians who studied probability. In 1730s,
De Moivre developed the equation for the normal
curve. During the 19th century, La Place and
Gauss were the two other mathematicians applied
probability principles to astronomy.
In the early 19th century, a famous Belgian
statistician in the name of Quetelet applied
statistics to investigation of social and educational
problems. Quetelet was able to develop statistical
theory on a general method of research to science.
Francis Galton had the greatest effect upon the
introduction and use of statistics in the social
sciences. His contribution in the field of heredity
and eugenics, psychology, anthropometry, and
statistics. The concept of correlation or the
measure of agreement between two variables is
credited to him. Galton also contributed the
development of centiles and percentiles.
Pearson is another mathematician who
collaborated with Galton in developing many of the
correlations and regression formulas that are being
used today.
James McKeen Cattell is a famous American
psychologist who studied in Europe in 1880 and
contacted Galton and other European statisticians.
Upon his return to United States, he and his
students, including E. L. Thorndike, apply statistical
methods to psychology and educational problems.
In the 20th century, new techniques and methods
were applied to the study of small samples by R. A.
Fisher, an English statistician. Most of his
contributions were applied in agriculture and
biological settings.
Today, statistics is the major tool used by
researchers in agriculture, biological, business,
medical, behavioral, and social sciences.
The data can be classified into two types. These
are the continuous and discontinuous or discrete
data.
Continuous data are measures like feet, pounds,
kilos, minutes, and meters. These kinds of data can
be made into measurement of varying degrees of
precision, for example, 1-yard equals 3 feet, 1 foot
equals 12 inches.
Discontinuous or discrete data are measurement
expressed in whole units. Counting of people,
number of objects, number of cars passing by,
number of houses, number of students, workers,
and so on.
According to Stevens, there are four types of scales
that are used in sciences. These are the nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal scales are used as measures of identity.
Examples of this are classification of individuals
into categories. Like gender, male and female; yes
and no answers; in religion for instance, Muslims
and Christians; for political parties, LP, Laban,
Lakas, and KNP; dwelling place, rural and urban;
and more of such categories.
Ordinal scale is used in measurement like ranking
of individuals or objects. Ordinal measures reveal
which person or object is larger or small, harder or
softer, responses like Strongly Agree, Agree, No
Opinion, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree.
Interval scales are numbers that reflect differences
among items. Examples are scores in a test,
grades of students, ages, blood pressures,
Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers.
Ratio scale is the highest type of scale. The basic
difference between the interval and ratio scale is
that ratio scale are the measures of length, weight,
loudness, width, and so on.

The students in statistics should familiarize the use

of the following symbols although notational usage
varies from one author to another author but there
are some of the common symbols used in statistics:

The characteristics of the population are called

parameters while the characteristics of the sample
are called statistics. Consider the following different
symbols on the characteristics, parameters, and
statistics.
Statistical investigation can be classified into two
major Functions:
Descriptive Statistics is the method of collecting
and presenting data. It includes the computation of
measures of central tendency, measures of central
location, likewise the measures of dispersion or
variability. It also includes the construction of tables
and graphs.
Inferential Statistics is concerned with higher
degree of critical judgment and advanced
mathematical modes such as using the different
statistical tools both the parametric and
nonparametric tests. This is concerned with the
analysis and interpretation of data in order to draw
conclusion and generalization from organized data. In any activity, whether in business transaction or
This also includes the testing of the significant statistical investigations, it is of utmost importance
relationship between the dependent and the that af ter the computation, the figures are rounded
independent variables as well as the significant off to a desired number of places with significant
differences between and among independent values.
samples. . If the number to be dropped is less than 5, such
Population identifies the totality of objects under as 1, 2, 3, 4, that number becomes zero.
investigation. The researcher may use the If the number to be dropped is greater than 5, such
population as subject of studies when it is small as 6, 7, 8, 9, that number becomes one, and it
and manageable when employing statistical should be added to the preceding number.
methods. However, if the population is too large, If the number to be dropped is 5 it becomes zero
the researcher may use the representative sample. when it is preceded by an even number but when it
Sampling is the method of getting a small part from is preceded by an odd number, 5 becomes 1, which
the population that serves as the representative of is added to the preceding number.
the population called sample.

The problem that is commonly encountered is

determining the sample size. It is not advisable to
set a certain percentage; instead, the margin of
error which is from 1% to 10% in social science
researches should be considered. The computation
of the sample size, relative to the population size
has this formula:
BASIC CONCEPTS OF STATISTICS Zero pounds means no weight or an absence of
weight ( true zero point)
MEASUREMENT SCALES It is also an items have an order exact values
What is Measurement Scales? Examples: Age & Weight
> There are different kinds of “2 meters is twice as long as 1 meter”
measurement scales and the types of data being “A 40 year old is twice as old as a 20
collected determine the kind of measurement scale year old”
to be used for statistical measurement. Measurement Named Order Difference True
These measurement scales has four in numbers level Zero
Namely: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio.
1. Nominal Scale Nominal ⁄ X X
A Nominal Scale of measurement use to X
assign numbers to objects where different numbers Ordinal ⁄ ⁄ X
indicate different objects into discrete categories. X
Data in categories without specific order/direction:
Eye color, Taste, etc. Interval ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
The numbers have no real meaning other than X
differentiating between objects.
Ratio ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Example 1: Gender #1=male; 2=female
⁄
Example 2: Baseball uniform numbers:
-the number provides no insight into
players position. ORGANIZATION OF DATA
2. Ordinal Scale • Organization of Data
Ordinal Scale is categorize data in natural order:  It refers to the practice of categorizing
Example: Completely resolved, much and classifying data to make it more usable.
better, a bit better, a bit worse, much worse. Organization
It also assign numbers (like nominal), but here the  It refers to the arrangement of figures in
numbers also have meaningful order. such a form that comparison become easy and
Example 1: Place finished in a race: 1st, conclusion can be drawn.
2nd, 3rd and so on. • Data
Example 2: Place finished in an election:  It is a collection of information from facts,
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. statistics, numbers, characteristics, observations,
Number indicates placement or order: 1st is better and measurements that represent an idea.
than second and so on. 4 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
3. Interval Scale 1. Geographical Classification
Numbers have order (like ordinal), but there are • When data are classified on the basis of
also equal intervals between adjacent categories or location or areas.
have an order difference between categories is Example: Classification of production of rice in
identical. different provinces in Bicol.
Difference between measurements but no true Provinces Production of rice (in ‘000 tons)
zero example temperature in °C or °F. - Camarines Sur 4500
Example. Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit: the - Albay 4200
difference between 78 degrees and 79 degree(1 - Sorsogon 3600
degree) is the same as 45 and 46 degrees. 2. Chronological Classification
We’ll contrast this with ordinal in a few moment. Mean classification on the basis of time, like
4. Ratio Scale months, year, etc.
Difference are meaningful (like interval), Example: Profits of a company from 2018-2020
plus ratios are meaningful and there is a true zero Year Profits (in pesos)
point. 2018 150,000
Example: Weight in pounds 2019 210,000
10 lbs. is twice as much as 5 lbs. (ratios are 2020 265,0003
meaningful: 10/5 = 2), and
3. Qualitative Classification need to show how a subject is like or unlike another
Data are classified on the basis of some attributes subject
or quality such as sex, colour of hair, literacy and PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION
religion. Definition:
Example: Permutation: Permutation can simply be defined
- Sex -male, female as the several ways of arranging few or all
- Year level -1 st yr, 2nd yr, 3rd yr, 4th yr members within a specific order. It is the process of
- Course -BSCrim, BSED legibly arranging from chaos. This is what is termed
- Religion -INC, Born Again, Catholic as a Permutation.
Combination: The combination is a process of
2 Elements of Quantitative Classification of selecting the objects or items from a set or the
Data collection of objects, such that (unlike permutations)
• Variables Refers to the characteristics that the order of selection of objects does not matter. It
varies in magnitude quantity. a. Discrete refers to the combination of N things taken from a
variables b. Continuous variables group of K at a time without repetition.
• Frequency Refers to the number of times
each variables gets repeated. What is the Difference between Permutation
and Combination?
4 Tools in Gathering Data
1. Survey - is a tool that a person can use to have
a brief discussion about a specific topic (like
favorite ice cream flavor).
2. Focus Group - is a group of individuals being
interviewed or observed on a specific topic (such as
discussion on school safety).
3. Interview - can be a one-on-one or group
discussion as well, where the observer is trying to
compile information about a specific topic.
4. Questionnaire - shares the same characteristics
of a survey, focus group, and interview, as it's a list
of questions the observer has compiled for the
specific topic.

4 Methods of Organization
1. Cause and Effect (or Effect and Cause) - The
cause-and-effect pattern may be used to identify
one or more causes followed by one or more
effects or results. Or you may reverse this
sequence and describe effects first and then the
cause or causes.
2. Problem-Solution - The problem-solution
pattern is commonly used in identifying something What is the example of permutation and
that’s wrong and in contemplating what might be combination?
done to remedy the situation. Suppose A and B are two elements then they can
3. Chronology or Narrative - Material arranged be arranged in two ways only AB or BA, this is
chronologically is explained as it occurs in time.  called a permutation.
A chronological or narrative method of development Now if we there is one way to select A and B, then
might help you find a way to add both interest and we select both of them.
content to your essay. What is the formula for permutation?
4. Comparison and Contrast - The comparison- The formula for permutation is given by:
and-contrast method of development is particularly nPr = (n!)/(n-r)!
useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you where n is the number of different elements
 r is the arrangement pattern of the element
Both r and n are positive integers.

What is the formula for combination?

The formula for combination is given by:
nCr = (n!) /[r! (n-r)!]
 From a group of 7 men and 6 women, five persons
are to be selected to form a committee so that at
least 3 men are there in the committee. In how
many ways can it be done?

EXAMPLE:
1. Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many
words of 3 consonants and 2 vowels can be formed? PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
A. 25200 1. Set Notation
B. 21300 ● A set is a collection of objects.
C. 24400 ● We often specify a set by listing its
D. 210 members, or elements, in parentheses like
this {}.
● For example A = {2, 4, 6, 8} means that A is
the set consisting of numbers 2,4,6,8.
● We could also write A ={even numbers less
than 9}.
● The union of A and B is the set of elements
which belong to A or to B (or both) and can
be written as A ∪ B.
● The intersection of A and B is the set of
elements which belong to both A and B, and
can be written as A ∩ B
● The complement of A, frequently denoted
by A, is the set of all elements which do not
belong to A. In making this definition we
assume that all elements we are thinking
about belong to some larger set U, which
we call the universal set.
 ● The empty set, written ∅ or {}, means the
set with no elements in it.
● A set C is a subset of A if all the elements in
C are also in A
For example, let
● Sets A, B and U may be represented in a
Venn Diagram as follows:
● A intersection B, A ∩ B, is shown in the
Venn diagram by the overlap of the sets A
and B, A ∩ B = {2}.
● The union of the sets A and B, A ∪ B, is the
set of elements that are in A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
together with the elements that are in B = {1,
2, 3} including each element once only.
● So, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8}.
● The complement of A is the set A is
contains all the elements in U which are not
in A. So, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}.
● C is a subset of A as every element in C =
{6, 8} is also in A = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
2. Finite Equiprobable Spaces
● In loose terms, we say that the probability of
something happening is 1 4 , if, when the
experiment is repeated often under the
same conditions, the stated result occurs
25% of the time.
● For the moment, we will confine our
discussion to cases where there are a finite
number of equally likely outcomes.
● For example, if a coin is tossed, there are
two equally likely outcomes: heads (H) or
tails (T). If a die is tossed, there are six
equally likely outcomes: 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Some Notation:
The set of all possible outcomes of the given
experiment is called the sample space. An event is
a subset of a sample space.
Calculating Probabilities
Look again at the example of rolling a six faced die.
The possible outcomes in this experiment are
1,2,3,4,5,6, so the sample space is the set
{1,2,3,4,5,6}. The ‘event’ of ‘getting a 6’ is the
subset {6}. We represent this in the following
diagram.
There are six possibilities in the sample space and
only one of these corresponds to getting a 6, so the
probability of getting a 6 when you roll a die is 1 6.
We say that the probability of an event A occurring
is:
Examples:
 If a fair coin is tossed, it is clear from our
definition of probability above that P
(obtaining a head) = 1/2 .
 A card is selected at random from a pack of
52 cards.
Let A = ‘the card is a heart’ and B = ‘the
card is an ace’. Find P(A), P(B).
Solution:
P(A) = 13/52 since there are 13 hearts in
the pack. P(B) = 4/52 since there are 4 aces
in the pack.
To calculate the probability of an event, we
simply need to find out the total number of
possible outcomes of an experiment and the
number of outcomes which correspond to
the given event.
 Consider the following problem. Two coins
are tossed. Let A be the event ‘two heads
are obtained’, and, B be the event ‘one
 head and one tail is obtained’. Find P(A),
P(B).
Solution:
Notice that HT and TH must be regarded as
different outcomes. Often we can conveniently
represent the possible outcomes on a diagram and
count directly. We will also develop some
techniques and rules to assist in our calculations.
Now let us see what happens in reality. Try the
following experiment:
Roll a die 50 times and record the number of each
of the outcomes 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Continue rolling and record the number of each
outcome after 100 rolls.
Now record the number after 200 rolls.
Find the relative frequency of each outcome after
50, 100 and 200 rolls.
3. Complementary Events
In common language we often say it is 100%
certain (which is the same thing).
For example, in the coin tossing experiment, let C
be the event ‘obtaining a head or a tail’.
The sample space is {H, T}. The event is {H, T}.
Examples:
If a normal die is rolled, what is the probability that
the number showing is less than 7?
Solution
Sample space = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Event = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Hence, the probability (number < 7) = 6/6 = 1.
Find the probability of throwing an 8 on a normal
die.
Here there are no possible outcomes in the event.
i.e.
Sample space = {1,2,3,4,5,6} Event = {}, i.e. the
empty set.
Hence the probability of throwing an 8 is 0/6 = 0.
If the event is neither impossible nor certain, then
clearly its probability is between 0 and 1.
When a coin is tossed, the sample space is {H, T}
and the events H = ‘obtain a head’ and T = ‘obtain
a tail’ are complementary.
If we calculate the probabilities, we find that
A die is rolled. Let A be the event ‘a number less
than 3 is obtained’ and let B be the event ‘a number
of 3 or more is obtained’.
We have illustrated following law.
A marble is drawn at random from a bag containing
3 red, 2 blue, 5 green and 1 yellow marble. What is
the probability that it is not green?
There are two ways of doing this problem.
Method A
Method B
Alternatively, we can find the probability that the
marble is red, blue or yellow which is 6/11 .
4. Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are incompatible, disjoint or mutually
exclusive when the occurence of one precludes the
occurrence of the other, i.e. they cannot occur at
the same time. For example, we can never have
the head side and the tail side of a coin face up at
the same time.
Example:
  Suppose a die is tossed.
Then the events E = ‘obtaining an even number’
and O = ‘obtaining a one’ are mutually exclusive.

5. Conditional Probability
A lecture on a topic of public health is held and 300
people attend. They are classified in the following
way:

If one person is selected at random, find the

 What is the probability of drawing a heart or following probabilities:
spade from a pack of 52 cards when one
card is drawn at random?

SOLUTION:
 What is the flaw in the following
argument?

Solution:
The two events are not mutually exclusive,
therefore we cannot add the probabilities. That is,
to count all the students doing maths and/or
chemistry, we need to count all the maths students,
all the chemistry students, and subtract from this
the number of students who were counted twice
because they were in both classes. If M ∪ C means
that at least one of M or C occurs and M ∩ C
means that both M and C occur, then;
(a) The number of doctors is 190 and the total
number of people is 300, so P(doctor) = 190/300
(b) P(female) = 180/300
(c) P(male) = 120/300
(d) P(nurse) = 110/300
(e) There are 90 female nurses, therefore P(female
∩ nurse) = 90/300
(f) P(male doctor) = P(male ∩ doctor) = 100/300 .
Definition:

6. Independence
● Here is a game of chance. A friend tosses a
coin and you bet on the outcome. Suppose
she has tossed the coin 3 times and
obtained ‘heads’ all three times. What would
you bet on the fourth trial?
● You might be inclined to guess ‘tails’ but
would still only have probability 1 2 of being
right.
● The chance of getting ‘tails’ on any one
throw is 1/2 . The outcome of one throw is
not affected by previous ones - the coin has
no memory! (You might, of course, check
that the coin does have a tail.)
● When the chance of a given outcome
remains the same, irrespective of whether
or not another event has occurred, the
events are said to be independent.
Definition:
Two events A and B are said to be independent if
and only if P(A | B) = P(A), that is, when the
conditional probability of A given B is the same as
the probability of A.

Examples: SUMMARY:
 In the problem of nurses and doctors given
on page 13, define A to be the event ‘a
nurse is chosen’ and B to be the event ‘a
female is chosen’. Are the events A and B
independent?

Note: From the definition of conditional

probability we have