BIOSTATISTICS

ASSIGNMENT
NAME TESHA KUMARI

ASSIGNED BY MAM FARYAL

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION OF BIOSTATISTICS
QNO:1 Explain what is meant by Statistics? Give the important uses and
limitations of Statistics?

ANSWER: MEANING OF STATISTICS:

“Statistics”, that a word is often used, has been derived from the Latin word
‘Status’ that means a group of numbers or figures; those represent some
information of our human interest.

IMPORTANT USES:
(1) Statistics helps in providing a better understanding and accurate
description of natures phenomena.

(2) Statistics helps in the proper and efficient planning of a statistical

inquiry in any field of study.

(3) Statistics helps in collecting appropriate quantitative data.

(4) Statistics helps in presenting complex data in a suitable tabular,

diagrammatic and graphic form for an easy and clear comprehension
of the data.

(5) Statistics helps in understanding the nature and pattern of

variability of a phenomenon through quantitative observations.

(6) Statistics helps in drawing valid inferences, along with a measure of

their reliability about the population parameters from the sample data.

LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS:
(1) Statistics laws are true on average. Statistics are aggregates of facts,
so a single observation is not a statistic. Statistics deal with groups and
aggregates only.
(2) Statistical methods are best applicable to quantitative data.

(3) Statistics cannot be applied to heterogeneous data.

(4) If sufficient care is not exercised in collecting, analyzing and

interpreting the data, statistical results might be misleading.
(5) Only a person who has an expert knowledge of statistics can handle
statistical data efficiently.

(6) Some errors are possible in statistical decisions. In particular,

inferential statistics involves certain errors. We do not know whether an
error has been committed or not.

QNO:2 Define Statistics, Discuss giving examples, the importance of study of

Statistics and show how it can help the extension of scientific knowledge?

ANSWER: DEFINITION OF STATISTICS:

“Statistics, the branch of mathematics that deals with science of identifying,
collecting, organizing, analyzing, presenting, and interpreting data.”

EXAMPLES OF STATISTICS; A statistic is a number that represents a

property of the sample. For example, if we consider one math class to be a
sample of the population of all math classes, then the average number of points
earned by students in that one math class at the end of the term is
an example of a statistic.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF STATISTICS: Statistical knowledge helps

you use the proper methods to collect the data, employ the correct analyses,
and effectively present the results. Statistics is a crucial process behind how we
make discoveries in science, make decisions based on data, and make
predictions.

STATISTICS ROLE IN SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:

Statistics is the science of learning from data, and of measuring controlling, and
communicating uncertainity and it there provides the navigation essential for
controlling the course of scientific and social advances. It is important for
research and also consumes of research to understand statistics. So that they
can be information and usefulness of information and make final decision.

QNO:3 (a) What do you understand by the term the Statistics? Give its chief
characteristics?

ANSWER: STATISTICS:

Statistics is the study and manipulation of data, including ways to gather,

review, analyze, and draw conclusions from data. The two major areas
of statistics are descriptive and inferential statistics. Statistics can be used to
make better-informed business and investing decisions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTICS:
(1) Statistics should be numerically expressed. For example the statement Rajan is
of height 6' 1" makes the fact clear and easily understandable.
(2) Statistics are aggregates of facts. Statistics means the facts pertaining to a
group of individuals or individual item.
(3) Statistics are affected to a market extent by a multiplicity of causes. There are
a variety of forces or factors operating on the facts and figures in an aggregate.
The influence of any particular factor cannot be isolated.
(4) Statistics must be collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined
purpose. Determination of the main purpose or objectives of any scientific study
is the first and the most important step which in turn paves way for other
operations to follow.
(5) Statistics are enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of
accuracy.
(6) Statistics should be placed in relation to each other.

(b) Give a brief account of the importance of Statistics in different fields?

ANSWER: IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS IN DIFFERENT FIELDS:
Mathematics: The formulas used in math are reliable, but to get more precision and
exactness, statistics methods are important. In fact, it is called the branch of applied
math. There are common techniques that both the fields have adopted from each other
such as statistical methods, namely probability, dispersion, etc., used in math, and
mathematical concepts like integration and algebra are used in the former. 

Business: Business students must be aware of the importance of statistics in the

field. There are times when a businessman has to make quick decisions, and this can
be done by using its concepts, which make the decision-making easy. He strategizes
the marketing, finance, production, resource through it. What are the tastes and
preferences of consumers? What should be the quality? What should be the target
market? All these questions are answered using statistical tools.

Economics: There are so many concepts of economics that are completely

dependent on statistics. All the data collected to find out the national income,
employment, inflation, etc., are interpreted through it. In fact, the theory of demand
and supply, the relationship between exports and imports are studied through this
subject. The perfect example of this is the census; the bureau uses its formulas for
calculating a country’s population.

Country’s Administration: Many national policies are decided using statistical

methods, and administrative decisions are taken based on its data. Statistics provides
the most accurate data, which helps the government to make budgets and estimate
expenditures and revenues. It is also used to revise the pay scale of employees in case
the cost of living is rising.

Astronomy: When scientists measured the distance between sun and earth, or moon
and earth, they did not use any measurement scale or ruler for that. It was these
statistical methods that helped them to find out the best answers and estimates that are
possible. It is difficult to measure the mass, size, distance, density of objects in the
universe without any error, but statistics formulas do this with the best probability.

Banking: When someone deposits his money in banks, the idea is that he will not
withdraw the amount in the near future. So, banks lend this money to other customers
to earn profit in the form of interest. They use a statistical approach for this service.
They compare the number of people making deposits against the number of people
requesting loans and at the same time ascertaining the estimated day for the claim.

Accounting and Auditing: Although accounting needs exactness in calculating the

profit and loss of the business, certain decisions can be taken according to
approximation, which is done through statistics. For example, sampling may be used
to find out the current trends in the market as it does not require any precision.

Natural and Social Science: Almost all fields of science such as biology,
chemistry, physics, etc., use statistical methods for experimenting and analyzing their
results. In biology, it is used in biostatistics, biometrics, which includes investigating
medicines, pharmacy, agriculture, fishery, etc
QNO4: Comment upon the following statement of Sir Ronald Fisher: “Statistics
may be regarded as (i) study of populations (ii) the study of variation and (iii)
the study of the method of reduction of data.

ANSWER: THE STUDY OF POPULATION: The field of science interested in

collecting and analyzing these numbers is termed Population. The population
means an average of a group. The group could be person, item or thing etc.

THE STUDY OF VARIATION: It refers to how spread out a group of data is the
common measures of variation are the range IQR, variance and standard
deviation measures of variability are descriptive statistics that can only be used to
describe the data in a given set or study.

THE STUDY OF THE METHODS OF REDUCTION OF DATA: One of the methods

used for data is sampling as it is capable to reduce the large data set into a much
smaller data sample.

QNO5: Comment on the following statement given below

“Statistics is concerned with understanding the real world through the
information that we derive from classification and measurement. Its distinctive
characteristic is that it deals with variability and uncertainly which is
everywhere”.

ANSWER: Statistical knowledge helps you use the proper methods to collect the
data, employ the correct analysis, and effectively present the results. Statistics is a
crucial process behind how we make discoveries in science, make decisions based
on data and make predictions. It is mostly used to keep records, calculate
probabilities and provide knowledge. Basically it helps us understand the world a
little bit better through numbers and other quantitative information.
QNO6: Explain the difference between the following:
ANSWER:
STATISTICS
 It deals with the process of data
collection, interpretation and
presentation of data.
 It deals with quantitative or
numerical data.
POPULATION
 The collection of all outcomes,
measurement or courts that are
of interest.
 The measurable quality is called a
parameter.
 It contains all members of a
specified group.
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
  Variables whose values result
from counting or measuring
something.
 Sometimes referred to as
STATISTIC
 A number that describes a
sample characteristics and
represents a property of the
sample.
 Any statistic measure computed
from sample data is known as
Statistic.
SAMPLE
 A subset of the population.
 The measurable quantity is called
a sample.
 It is a subset that represents the
entire population.
QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
  Variables that are not
measurement variables. Their
values do not result from
measuring or counting.
 “numeric” variables, these are
variables that represent a
measurable quantity. Examples
include:
 Number of students in a class
 Number of square feet in a house
 Population size of a city
 Age of an individual
 Height of an individual
DISCRETE VARIABLES
 Discrete variable refers to the
variable that assumes a finite
number of isolated values.
 Values are obtained by counting.
 Examples
 Number of printing mistakes in a
book.
 Number of road accidents in New
Delhi.
 Number of siblings of an
individual.
 Sometimes referred to as
“categorical” variables, these are
variables that take on names or
labels and can fit into categories.
Examples include:
 Eye color (e.g. “blue”, “green”,
“brown”)
 Gender (e.g. “male”, “female”)
 Breed of dog (e.g. “lab”,
“bulldog”, “poodle”)
 Level of education (e.g. “high
school”, “Associate’s degree”,
“Bachelor’s degree”)
 Marital status (e.g. “married”,
“single”, “divorced”)
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES
 Continuous variable alludes to
the a variable which assumes
infinite number of different
values.
 Values are obtained by
measuring.
 Examples
 Height of a person
 Age of a person
 Profit earned by the company.
 PRIMARY DATA
 Primary data is the type of data
that is collected by researchers
directly from main sources.
 Primary data can be collected
using surveys and questionnaires.
 Primary data is more accurate
and reliable.
 Primary data is very expensive.
BIASED ERRORS
 A sample drawn in such a way
that one or more parts of the
population favored over others.
 Members of the cheer leading
team.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 It gives information about raw
data which describes the data in
some manner.
 It helps in organizing, analyzing
and to present data in a
meaningful manner.
 It is used to describe a situation.
 It explain already known data and
limited to a sample or population
having small size.
 It can be achieved with the help
of charts, graphs, tables etc.
SECONDARY DATA
 Secondary data is the data that
has already been collected
through primary sources.
 Secondary data are collected
using the library, bots, etc.
 Secondary data is relatively less
reliable and accurate.
 Secondary data is economical.
UNBIASED ERRORS
 A sample that is selected so that
it is represent ative of the entire
population.
 Two students from each table at
lunch time.
INFERENNTIAL STATISTICS
 It makes inference about
population using data drawn
from the population.
 It allows us to compare data,
make hypothesis and predictions.
 It is used to explain the chance of
occurrence of an event.
 It attempts to reach the
conclusion about the population.
 It can be achieved by probability.
QNO8: What is Statistical Error? In what way it differ from a mistake? Explain
difference between absolute and relative errors?

ANSWER: STATISTICAL ERROR: Sampling is a technique which helps us in

understanding the parameters or characteristics of the universe or population
by examining only a small part of it. Statistical data are obtained either by
measurement or by observation hence it is not possible to ensure perfect
accuracy.

In statistical hypothesis testing, a type I error is the rejection of true null

hypothesis (also known as a false positive finding or conclusion).

Examples: An innocent person is convicted) while a type II error is the non-

rejection of a false null hypothesis (also known as false negative find or
conclusion.

It relates to the views people entertain regarding the policies of the

government and how they are implemented. It is not only, a majority decision
Sometimes it may be minority decision of the people -public opinion is an
expression of the general populations thoughts on a particular issue.

QNO9: 19 a) Define a Variable. Differentiate between a discrete and a

continuous variable.

ANSWER: VARIABLE: A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity

that can be measured or counted. A variable may also be called a data item. Age,
sex, business income and expenses, country of birth, capital expenditure, class
grades, eye colour and vehicle type are examples of variables.
Difference between of a discrete and continuous variables is given in above
differentiate table.

b) Classify the following variables as discrete or continuous:

i)The number of students attending a class. Discrete variable

ii)The amount of milk produced by a cow. Continuous variable

iii)The number of heads in the toss of 6 coins. Discrete variable

iv)The yearly income of a College Professor. Discrete variable

v)The age of a shopkeeper. Continuous variable

vi)The weight of a college student. Continuous variable

vii)the number of petals on a flower. Discrete variable

viii)The life times of television tubes produced by a company. Continuous

variable

ix) Temperature recorded every half hour at a weather bureau. Continuous

variable

x)The number of shares sold each day in the stock market. Discrete variable

QNO10: Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative

i) Colour of eyes. Qualitative variable

ii) Number of computers sold in the last month. Quantitative variable

iii) Marital status of faculty members. Qualitative variable

iv) Student's weight. Quantitative variable

v) Lifetime of car batteries. Qualitative variable

vi) Number of burgers sold by a fast food shop. Quantitative variable

vii) Brand of cars. Quantitative variable

QNO11: Classify each as nominal –level, ordinal level, internal level or ratio-
level measurement.

I) Weight of car Ratio

II) Ranking of squash player Ordinal
III) Temperature of city Interval
IV) Salaries of top five executives in bank Ratio
V) Marital status Nominal

Qno12: Round off the following continuous data to four significant digits each.

I) 32.21705 Round of four significant digits become 32.22.

II) 937.0500 Four significant become 937.1 because we increase zero
proceeds 5 by 1 as 5.
III) 0.003599499 Rounded four become 0.0003599 because beginning zero
are not significant.
IV) 1.003599499 Rounded four significant digit become 1.004.
V) 0.07000455 Rounded four significant digits become 0.07000.
VI) 22.2500001 Rounded four significant digits become 22.25.

QNO13: a) Distinguish between primary and secondary data, giving example of

each?

ANSWER: “Primary data” Data have been originally collected (raw data) and have
not undergone any sort of statistical treatment, are called primary data. While
data have been undergone any sort of treatment by statistical treatment by
statistical method at least once, i.e.
“Secondary data” The data have been collected classified, tabulated or presented
in some .form for a certain purpose, are called secondary data.
(a) To define the objective of the survey.

(b) To define the variables and the population of the interest.

(b) Describe the method which can be used in the collection of statistical data,
stating the advantages and didadvantages of each method.

ANSWER: Generally, you collect quantitative data through sample surveys,

experiments and observational studies. You obtain qualitative data through focus
groups, in-depth interview and case studies, we will discuss each of these data
collection methods below and examine their advantages disadvantages.

Primary Data Collection Methods: Primary data is collected from the

first-hand experience and is not used in the past. The data gathered by primary
data collection methods are specific to the research’s motive and highly accurate.
Primary data collection methods can be divided into two categories: quantitative
methods and qualitative methods.

Quantitative Methods: Quantitative techniques for market research and

demand forecasting usually make use of statistical tools. In these techniques,
demand is forecast based on historical data. These methods of primary data
collection are generally used to make long-term forecasts. Statistical methods are
highly reliable as the element of subjectivity is minimum in these methods.

Time Series Analysis: The term time series refers to a sequential order of
values of a variable, known as a trend, at equal time intervals. Using patterns, an
organization can predict the demand for its products and services for the
projected time.

Smoothing Techniques: In cases where the time series lacks significant

trends, smoothing techniques can be used. They eliminate a random variation
from the historical demand. It helps in identifying patterns and demand levels to
estimate future demand. The most common methods used in smoothing demand
forecasting techniques are the simple moving average method and the weighted
moving average method.
Barometric Method: Also known as the leading indicators approach,
researchers use this method to speculate future trends based on current
developments. When the past events are considered to predict future events,
they act as leading indicators.

Qualitative Methods: Qualitative methods are especially useful in situations

when historical data is not available. Or there is no need of numbers or
mathematical calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words,
sounds, feeling, emotions, colors, and other elements that are non-quantifiable.
These techniques are based on experience, judgment, intuition, conjecture,
emotion, etc.

Quantitative methods do not provide the motive behind participants’ responses,

often don’t reach underrepresented populations, and span long periods to collect
the data. Hence, it is best to combine quantitative methods with qualitative
methods.

Surveys: Surveys are used to collect data from the target audience and gather
insights into their preferences, opinions, choices, and feedback related to their
products and services. Most survey software often a wide range of question types
to select.

You can also use a ready-made survey template to save on time and effort. Online
surveys can be customized as per the business’s brand by changing the theme,
logo, etc. They can be distributed through several distribution channels such as
email, website, offline app, QR code, social media, etc. Depending on the type and
source of your audience, you can select the channel.

Once the data is collected, survey software can generate various reports and run
analytics algorithms to discover hidden insights. A survey dashboard can give you
the statistics related to response rate, completion rate, filters based on
demographics, export and sharing options, etc. You can maximize the effort spent
on online data collection by integrating survey builder with third-party apps.
Polls: Polls comprise of one single or multiple choice question. When it is
required to have a quick pulse of the audience’s sentiments, you can go for polls.
Because they are short in length, it is easier to get responses from the people.

Similar to surveys, online polls, too, can be embedded into various platforms.
Once the respondents answer the question, they can also be shown how they
stand compared to others’ responses.

Interviews: In this method, the interviewer asks questions either face-to-face

or through telephone to the respondents. In face-to-face interviews, the
interviewer asks a series of questions to the interviewee in person and notes
down responses. In case it is not feasible to meet the person, the interviewer can
go for a telephonic interview. This form of data collection is suitable when there
are only a few respondents. It is too time-consuming and tedious to repeat the
same process if there are many participate.

Focus Groups: In a focus group, a small group of people, around 8-10

members, discuss the common areas of the problem. Each individual provides his
insights on the issue concerned. A moderator regulates the discussion among the
group members. At the end of the discussion, the group reaches a consensus.

Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a printed set of questions, either open-

ended or closed-ended. The respondents are required to answer based on their
knowledge and experience with the issue concerned. The questionnaire is a part
of the survey, whereas the questionnaire’s end-goal may or may not be a survey.

Secondary Data Collection Methods: Secondary data is the data that has
been used in the past. The researcher can obtain data from the sources, both
internal and external, to the organization.

Internal sources of secondary data:

 Organization’s health and safety records

 Mission and vision statements
  Financial Statements
 Magazines
 Sales Report
 CRM Software
 Executive summaries

External sources of secondary data:

 Government reports
 Press releases
 Business journals
 Libraries
 Internet

The secondary data collection methods, too, can involve both quantitative and
qualitative techniques. Secondary data is easily available and hence, less time-
consuming and expensive as compared to the primary data. However, with the
secondary data collection methods, the authenticity of the data gathered cannot
be verified.