Lesson 1: Hypothesis Testing

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
o define and illustrate the null and alternative hypothesis;
o differentiate the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis;
o define and differentiate the Type I and Type II error; and
o   identify the steps in testing the hypothesis
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_
During the midterms, you learned types of data, levels of measurement, how to
get the different measures of frequency, central tendency, variations, and locations. You
also learned about the different sampling techniques and how to draw samples for our
populations. Simply, we are done discussing Descriptive Statistics and how can we use
them.  For our finals, we will discuss hypothesis testing and the other type of Statistics
which is our Inferential Statistics.
 

MOTIVATION:
 Look and Observe
Instructions:
1. Look around you and observe clearly, what are the things that need scientific
observation
2. Create questions that can lead you to a conclusion
3. Observe
4. Write a short conclusion about the things you observed.

Task Instructions: Plant two tomatoes and put them in two different areas. For Tomato
A, I planted it on soil with natural fertilizers like manure, vegetable residues, and
mineral sources while Tomato B is planted in soil with synthetic fertilizers.
Questions:
a) Which of the following tomato will grow faster?
b) Is there a difference between the sizes of two tomatoes having different treatments?
c) What is the effect of Organic Fertilizers and Synthetic Fertilizers on the tomato?
____________________________________________________________

LEARNING CONTENT:
How can we determine if our decision is right or guide wrong?
In the field of research, there are many scientific questions that need answers.
Perhaps, you are interested to know the difference between two variables just like:
determining the effect of adding certain raw materials to a hollow block to test its
strength or a total replacement of one material: determining the effect of a technology in
the learning process, or you want to know the relationship of reviewing time and
performance in math assessment. 
These types of questions can be addressed through statistical hypothesis testing, which
is a decision-making process for evaluating claims about a population.

What is a hypothesis?
A Hypothesis is a proposed explanation, assertion, or assumption about a population
parameter or about the distribution of a random variable. It is a supposition advanced
as a basis of the argument
A Hypothesis Testing is a statistical test that is used to determine whether there is
enough evidence in a sample of data to infer that a certain condition is true for the entire
population. A hypothesis test examines two opposing hypotheses about a population.
Hypothesis Testing refers to the process of using statistical analysis to determine if the
observed differences between two or more samples due to random chance or to true
differences in the samples. It also refers to the process of using a variety of statistical
tools to analyze data and, ultimately, to reject or accept the null hypothesis. Thus, it is
also the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given hypothesis is true.
Two types of Hypothesis
1. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) states a specific difference between a parameter and a
specific value. It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to Ho and
what we conclude when we reject Ho.
The alternative hypothesis is a statement that assumes that there is a
significant difference, relationship, and effect between two means or variables
under the test or investigation.
 
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho) - It is a statement of no difference between sample means or
proportions or no difference between a sample mean or proportion and a
population mean or proportion. In other words, the difference equals 0.
The null hypothesis is a statement that concludes that there is no difference,
relationship, and effect between two means either the population or sample mean or
variables being compared in a study.
In order to state the hypothesis correctly, the researcher must translate correctly the
claim into mathematical symbols. There are three possible sets of statistical hypotheses:

H.: parameter = specific value This is two-tailed test.

Ha: parameter ≠ specific value

H₂ parameter ≥ specific value This is a left-tailed test (one-tailed).

Ha: parameter < specific value

Ho parameter ≤ specific value This is a right-tailed test (one-tailed).

Ha: parameter > specific value

A. State the null and alternative hypothesis

State the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis

1. A random sample of 10 individuals is drawn from population of interest has a mean of 27.
Ho: μ = 27
Ha: μ ≠ 27

2. A random sample of 10 individuals is drawn from a population of interest has a mean greater
than 27
Ho: μ ≤ 27
Ha: μ >27

3. A random sample of 10 individuals is drawn from a population of interest has a mean less than
27
Ho: μ ≥ 27
Ha: μ< 27

Observe clearly the given examples. In example #1 since the given stated that the
mean is 27, It means that we will use “≠” and it will indicate that the hypothesis is a two-
tailed test.  While in examples number 2 and 3, We can clearly see that we used an
inequality symbol thus, the hypothesis will utilize a one-tailed test. If the inequality is
greater than, it is a right-tailed test. If the inequality is less than, it is a left-tailed test.
 
2. Among 157 African-American men, the mean systolic blood pressure was 146 mmHg with a
standard deviation of 27. We may conclude that the mean systolic blood pressure for a
population of African American is greater than 140.
Ho: µ≤ 140
Ha: μ > 140

3. The WOMAC mean function score was 70.7 with standard deviation of 14.6, we wish to know
if we may conclude that the mean function score for a population of similar women subjects with
sever hip pain is less than 75.
Ho: μ ≥75
Ha: µ<75

4. In a sample of 18 patients, the mean DMFT index value was 10.3 with standard deviation of
7.3. Is this sufficient evidence to allow us to conclude that the mean DMFT index is equal to 9 in
a population of similar subjects?
Ho: μ = 9
Ha: μ #9

5. In the study of conducted by a university, they aim no know if is there a significant difference
between the pre-test and post-test of 12-Del Pilar.
Ho: There is no significant difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test of 12-Del Pilar
Ha: There is a significant difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test of 12-Del Pilar

6. Mr. Yu aims to test if there is a significant relationship between the test scores of Grade 3
Masunurin students in English and Math.
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the test scores of Grade 3 Masunurin Students
in English and Math
Ha: There is a significant relationship between the test scores of Grade 3 Masunurin Students in
English and Math

Mastering stating the statistical hypothesis is the first step in hypothesis testing which will be
your guide to make a good conclusion in the end.
In addition to that, there are four possible outcomes. In reality, the null hypothesis may or may
not be true. The decision to reject or not to reject is on the basis of the data obtained from the
sample of the population.
There are two types of Errors.
➤Type 1 Error - occurs when the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected when it is true. That is when
the null hypothesis is wrongly rejected
➤Type II Error - occurs when the null hypothesis (Ho) is not rejected when it is, in fact false

Reject Ho Do not Reject Ho

Ho is true Type I Error Correct decision
P=a
Ho is false Correct decision Type II Error
 P=B

The decision is made on the basis of probabilities. That is, if there is a large difference
between the value of the parameter obtained from the sample and the hypothesized
parameter, the null hypothesis is probably not true.
 

"How large a difference is necessary to reject the null hypothesis?"

Here is where the level of significance is used.

B. Level of Significance
The level of significance, denoted by the Greek letter a (Alpha) is the maximum probability of
committing a Type I Error which is P(type I error) = a. The probability of Type II Error is
denoted by Greek letter ß (Beta) which is P(type II error) = ß.

Generally, statisticians agree on using arbitrary significance levels: 0.10, 0.05 and 0.01. That is,
if the null hypothesis is rejected, the probability of a Type I Error will be 10%, 5% or 1% and the
probability of a correct decision will be 90%, 95% or 99% depending on the level of significance
is used. It means that if the a = 0.05, there is a 5% chance of rejecting a true null hypothesis.

C. Identify the appropriate test-statistic and determine whether it is one-tailed or two-

tailed.

One way of determining the type of test used in hypothesis testing is based on how the
alternative hypothesis is formulated.

One-Tailed Test
A one-tailed test is used when the alternative hypothesis is directional which means that the
value of the means is greater than (>) or less than (<) the other measure. A one tailed test is a
hypothesis test for which the rejection lies at only one tail of the distribution.
 Left Tailed Test - If the population mean (μ) is less than the specified value of μo, then it
is a left tailed test for which the alternative hypothesis can be expressed as μ < μο
 Right Tailed Test- if the population mean (u) is greater than the specified value Ho for
which the alternative hypothesis can be expressed as μ μo.

 Two-Tailed Test
A two-tailed test is used when the alternative hypothesis is non-directional which means that the
values if two measures of the same kind are not equal. A two-tailed test has a not equal sign (#)
in the alternative hypothesis. When the population mean (u) is not equal to specified value of o,
then alternative hypothesis can be expressed as μ μo. A two-tailed test is a hypothesis for which
the rejection region lies on both ends of distribution, one on the left and one on the right.
There are two tests that can be used for means: the z-test and the t-test (one-sample,
two-sample and paired) and the chi square test for the standard deviation. You will also
learn other statistical tests like Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Pearson r Correlation,
and Linear Regression.

D. Determine the critical value and the rejection

A critical value is selected from a table for the appropriate test. The critical value
determines the critical and non-critical regions. The critical region or the rejection
region is the range of the values of the test value that indicates that there is a significant
difference and that the null hypothesis should be rejected. The noncritical or the
nonrejection region is the range of values of the test value that indicates that the
difference was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis should not be
rejected.
 
The rejection region can be located on both sides with the nonrejection region in
the middle, or it can be on the left side or the right side of the nonrejection region. A test
with two rejection regions is called a two-tailed test. In this test, the null hypothesis
should be rejected when the test value is in either of the two critical regions. A one-tailed
test indicates that the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test values is in the
critical region on one side of the parameter. As a one-tailed test is either right-tailed
when the inequality in the alternative hypothesis is greater than (>) or left-tailed when
the inequality in less than (<). To illustrate that, study the illustration below:
 

 
If the test is two-tailed, the critical value will either be positive or negative. If the test is
left-tailed, the critical value will be negative. If the test is right-tailed, the critical value
will be positive.
 
 E. Compute the test statistic.
Next, the researcher must perform the required test to compute the test statistic. A statistical test
uses the data obtained from a sample to make a decision about whether the null hypothesis
should be rejected. The numerical value obtained from a statistical test is called the test value.

F. State the decision rule.

Based on the test results, the researcher will reach a conclusion about the population under study.
The two possible decisions are
(a) reject the null hypothesis and accept the alterative hypothesis
(b) do not reject the null hypothesis and do not

G. State the conclusion.

Based on the test results, the researcher will reach a conclusion about the population under study.

Clinical Trials
Hypothesis tests are often used in clinical trials to determine whether some new treatment, drug,
procedure, etc. causes improved outcomes in patients. For example, suppose a doctor believes
that a new drug is able to reduce blood pressure in obese patients. To test this, he may measure
the blood pressure of 40 patients before and after using the new drug for one month.

Advertising Spend
Hypothesis tests are often used in business to determine whether or not some new advertising
campaign, marketing technique, etc. causes increased sales. For example, suppose a company
believes that spending more money on digital advertising leads to increased sales. To test this,
the company may increase money spent on digital advertising during a two-month period and
collect data to see if overall sales have increased.

Manufacturing
Hypothesis tests are also used often in manufacturing plants to determine if some new process,
technique, method, etc. causes a change in the number of defective products produced. For
example, suppose a certain manufacturing plant wants to test whether or not some new method
changes the number of defective widgets produced per month, which is currently 250. To test
this, they may measure the mean number of defective widgets produced before and after using
the new method for one month.
 
____________________________________________________________
GENERALIZATION:
 
 The Conclusion of the hypothesis is always whether the null hypothesis should be
rejected or not. Rejecting the null hypothesis means that the conclusion is in
favor of the alternative hypothesis.
 
To summarize, here are the steps in Hypothesis testing:
 State the null and alternative hypotheses.
 Select the level of significance.
 Identify the test statistic.
 Determine the critical value and the rejection region/s.
 Compute the test statistic.
 State the decision rule.
 State the conclusion

Hypothesis Testing of One Sample z-test and t-test

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 differentiate t-test and z-test;
 identify the parameters to be tested given a real-life problem;
 draw conclusion about the population mean based on the test-statistic value and
the rejection region; and
 apply the steps of hypothesis testing. 
 
          Last week, you have learned the steps in hypothesis testing. For this week and
the succeeding weeks, you will learn the hypothesis testing of the different statistical
test.
          Hypothesis testing is like doing an everyday routine. We prepare the things that
we need. For example, when you answer any learning task, you need first to read the
module, understand the concept by trying the examples so that you can solve the given
problems in the learning task. Same is through in our topic, we need to prepare some
things before doing the procedure.

What to check before performing the hypothesis testing?

         We know that Statistics is much associated in any research undertakings
specifically quantitative research studies. In quantitative research, we need to determine
the variables being investigated and its level of measurement. Recall your Week 1
lesson under the level of measurement.
          After which, we need to determine the type of test, whether Parametric or Non-
Parametric.
 
What is the difference between Parametric test and Non-Parametric Test?
          Statistical tests, such as the z, t, and F tests, are called parametric
tests. Parametric tests are statistical tests for population parameters such as means,
variances, and proportions that involve assumptions about the populations from which
the samples were selected.
Things to consider…
 Data is normally distributed.
 Data have equal variance and same standard deviation.
 Data is continuous (interval/ratio).

But what if the population in a particular hypothesis-testing situation is not

normally distributed?
          Statisticians have developed a branch of statistics known
as nonparametric statistics to use when the population from which the samples are
selected is not normally distributed. Nonparametric statistics can also be used to test
hypotheses that do not involve specific population parameters, such as μ, σ, or ρ.
Things to consider…
 If the data do not meet the criteria for parametric test.
 Data are categorical (nominal/ordinal).

For this week, we shall deal with the

Hypothesis Testing of One Sample z-test and t-test

and as you study the lesson, ponder on this question:

"Why is it essential to test and prove our claims?"

What is one sample test?

          One-sample test is a test of hypothesis based on data contained in a single
sample using 2 test statistics known as the z-test and the t-test.
What is the difference between the z-test and t-test?
          Many hypotheses are tested using a statistical test based on the following general
formula: 
 (observed value)−( expected value)
test value=
standard error
         The observed value is the statistic (such as the mean) that is computed from the
sample data. The expected value is the parameter (such as the mean) that you would
expect to obtain if the null hypothesis were true—in other words, the hypothesized
value. The denominator is the standard error of the statistic being tested (e.g. the
standard error of the mean).
 
          The z-test is a statistical test for the mean of a population. It can be used when n
≥ 30, or when the population is normally distributed and σ is known.

where:

                     = sample mean
              μ = hypothesized population mean
                       σ = population standard deviation
                                n = sample size
 
          For the z test, the observed value is the value of the sample mean. The expected
value is the value of the population mean, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. The

denominator,   is the standard error of the mean.

 
          On the other hand, to compare a sample mean with the population mean when
the population standard deviation is not known, and when the sample size is less than
30, the one-sample t-test is used. The degree of freedom (d.f.) is n – 1.

where:
                     = sample mean
              μ = hypothesized population mean
                       s = sample standard deviation
                                n = sample size
 
We will also use table below for the critical value:
Perhaps the most commonly used statistical method is the t-test. We have William S. Gosset to
thank for that. Gosset discovered the formula for the tcurve used to get p-values in studies that
compare means based on small samples. He did this primarily by a careful study of data
patterns. At a later date, a younger man, the great mathematical theorist, R. A. Fisher, proved
rigorously that Gosset's findings were correct. Fisherwas able then to generalize Gosset's
original work and present a unified system for comparing means of several groups.
The turn of the 20th century saw tremendous growth in statistical methodology, mostly the
 work of mathematicians in England. The development of the t-test was part of that growth.
Three prominent names are linked in this history: William Sealy Gosset (who wrote under the
pseudonym, "Student," so that readers would not know he was a scientist at Guinness
Brewery); Karl Pearson (older, established leading professor of Statistics in London and editor
of the prestigious statistical journal Biometrika); and R.A. Fisher (young brilliant
mathematician, soon to be the greatest mathematical statistician of his time).

Once again, we recall the Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) states a specific difference between a parameter
and a specific value.
 Null Hypothesis (Ho) states that there is no difference between a parameter and
a specific value.
2. State the level of significance (α).
          Use the specified level of significance. Common levels of significance are 10%,5%
and 1%.
3. Identify the appropriate test-statistic and determine whether it is one-tailed
or two-tailed.
          In identifying the test statistic, check the given values. For this week, we are to
deal with z-test and t-test. Review the difference of the two test statistics above and the
module last week.
  Two-tailed Test One-tailed Test
    Right-tailed Left-tailed
Ho = ≤ ≥

Ha ≠ >  < 
 
4. Determine the critical value and the rejection region/s.
In determining the critical value, use the z-test and t-test table. The table is already
given above.
  Two-tailed Test One-tailed Test
    Right-tailed Left-tailed
Ha ≠ >  < 
Rejection region Both sides Right side Left side
 
 To illustrate the rejection region/s:

Note: If the test is two-tailed, the critical value will either be positive or negative. If the
test is left-tailed, the critical value will be negative. If the test is right-tailed, the critical
value will be positive.
5. Compute the test statistic.

6. State the decision rule.

Decision Left-tailed test Right-tailed test Two-tailed test
Reject Ho computed value <tabulated value computed value > tabulated computed value] > [tabulated
value value]
Do not computed value > tabulated value computed value tabulated < computed value| < |tabulated
reject H₂ value value]

7. State the conclusion.

Examples of Hypothesis Testing of One Sample z-test and t-test
We are now ready to perform the steps of hypothesis testing:

Example 1:
A test of the breaking strengths of six rings manufactured by a company showed a
mean breaking strength of 7,750 pounds and a standard deviation of 145 pounds,
whereas the manufacturer claimed a mean breaking strength which is not less than
8000 pounds. Test the manufacturer’s claim at significant level of 0.05.
Solution:
a. State
the null
and
alternativ Ho: µ ≥ 8000 pounds and the manufacturer’s claim is justified
e Ha: µ < 8000 pounds and the manufacturer’s claim is not justified
hypothes
es.
b. Select
the level
Since it has been stated from the problem that the level of significance is
of
0.05 therefore,α = 0.05
significan
ce.
c. Identify
the
appropria
te test-
statistic
The sample size is 6 and 6 is less than 30 and the value of the population
and
mean is less than the specified value, therefore, the test statistic is t-test
determin
(one-tailed, left-tailed).
e whether
it is one-
tailed or
two-
tailed.
d.
Determin Use the t-test table:
e the Given:
critical
value and n=6
α = 0.05
the d.f. = n – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5
rejection
region/s. Critical value = -2.015
 e.
Compute
the test
statistic.

Note: It would be better to input all values at once using your calculator.

Using the t-computed value, -4.2233 and t-tabular value, -2.015 and
f. State based on the decision rule table above,
the
decision computed value < tabulated value
rule. -4.2233 < -2.01
Reject the null hypothesis (Ho).

g. State
the The mean breaking strength is less than 8000 pounds. Hence, the
conclusio manufacturer’s claim is not justified.
n.

 
You may opt to use the GeoGebra software to check the computed value.
1. Go to https://www.geogebra.org/classic
 2. Follow the sequence as shown below for Probability Calculator.

3. Choose Statistics. Click the arrow below to choose for the appropriate test statistics.
For example 1, choose t-test of a mean.
4. Input all the necessary values for the Alternative Hypothesis, choosing the inequality
symbol for the null hypothesis, Mean, S and N. On the Result, you can easily determine
the t-computed value (-4.2233).
For the critical value, you may use the software, Stats
Kingdom, https://www.statskingdom.com/critical-value-calculator.html
Example 2:
A certain rehabilitation foundation reports that the average cost of rehabilitation for
stroke victims is P1,271,348.16. To see if the average cost of rehabilitation is different at
a particular hospital, a researcher selects a random sample of 35 stroke victims at the
hospital and finds that the average cost of their rehabilitation is P1,299,895.78. The
standard deviation of the population is P167,524.03. At α = 0.01, can it be concluded
that the average cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is different from
P1,271,348.16?
Solution:
a.
State
the
null
Ho: µ = P1,271,348.16
and
alterna Ha: µ ≠ P1,271,348.16 (claim)
tive
hypoth
eses.
b.
Select
the
Since it has been stated from the problem that the level of significance is
level
0.01 therefore, α = 0.01
of
signific
ance.
c.
Identif
y the
approp
riate
test-
statisti
c and The sample size is 35 and that is greater than 30, therefore, the test statistic
determ is z-test (two-tailed).
ine
wheth
er it is
one-
tailed
or two-
tailed.
d.
Use the z-test table:
Deter
mine Given: α = 0.01
the
critical Critical value = ±2.5758
value
and
the
rejecti
on
region/
s.

e.
Comp
ute the
test
statisti
c.
 Using the t-computed value,1.0082 and the t-tabular value, ±2.5758 and
based on the decision rule table above,
f.
State
the
decisio
n rule.
1.0082 < 2.5758
do not reject the null hypothesis (Ho)
g.
State
There is not enough evidence to support the claim that the average cost of
the
rehabilitation at the particular hospital is different from P1,271,348.16.
conclu
sion.

 
Example 3:
A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average cost of fees at a certain four-year
university is greater than P293,721. She selects a random sample of 36 four-year
university and finds the mean to be P306,603.50. The population standard deviation is
P33,958.27. Is there evidence to support the claim at α = 0.05?
Solution:
a.
State
the
null
Ho: µ ≤ P293,721
and
alterna Ha: µ > P293,721 (claim)
tive
hypoth
eses.
b.
Select
the
level Based on the problem, α = 0.05.
of
signific
ance.
c. The sample size is 36 and σ is known, the test statistic is z-test (one-tailed,
Identif right-tailed).
y the
approp
riate
test-
statisti
c and
determ
ine
wheth
er it is
one-
tailed
or two-
tailed.

Refer on the table and use α = 0.05 at one-tailed test, the critical value
is 1.6449.

d.
Deter
mine
the
critical
value
and
the
rejecti
on
region/
s.
e.
Comp
ute the
test
statisti
c.
 Using the t-computed value, 2.2762 and t-tabular value, 1.6449 and based
f.
on the decision rule table above,
State
the computed value > tabulated value
decisio
2.2762 > 1.6449
n rule.
Reject Ho.
g.
State
There is enough evidence to support the claim that the fees at four-year
the
university is greater than P293,721.
conclu
sion.

 
How about if α = 0.01? What would be the conclusion?
          At α = 0.01, the critical value is 2.3263. The computed value (2.2762) is less than
the tabulated value (2.3263), therefore, do not reject the null hypothesis.
 
Example 4:
A physician claims that joggers’ maximal volume oxygen uptake is greater than the
average of all adults. A sample of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6 milliliters per kilogram
(ml/kg) and a standard deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average of all adults is 36.7 ml/kg, is
there enough evidence to support the physician’s claim at α = 0.05?
Solution:
a.
State
the
null
Ho: µ ≤ 36.7
and
alterna Ha: µ > 36.7 (claim)
tive
hypoth
eses.
b.
Select
the
level Based on the problem, α = 0.05.
of
signific
ance.
c.
Identif
y the
approp
riate
test-
statisti
c and
The test statistic is t-test (one-tailed, right-tailed).
determ
ine
wheth
er it is
one-
tailed
or two-
tailed.

Refer on the table and use α = 0.05 at one-tailed test, the critical value
is 1.7613.

d.
Deter
mine
the
critical
value
and
the
rejecti
on
region/
s.
e.
Comp
ute the
test
statisti
c.
 Using the t-computed value, 2.5174 and t-tabular value, 1.7613 and based
f.
on the decision rule table above,
State
the computed value > tabulated value
decisio
2.5174 > 1.7613
n rule.
Reject Ho.
g.
State
There is enough evidence to support the claim that the joggers’ maximal
the
volume oxygen uptake is greater than 36.7 ml/kg.
conclu
sion.

Example 5:
A store owner claimed that the average weight of a pack of biscuits is 250 g with a
standard deviation of 20 g. Test the claim if a random sample of 50 packs of biscuits
showed an average of 242 g, using a 0.01 level of significance.
Solution:
a.
State
the
null
Ho: µ = 250
and
alterna Ha: µ ≠ 250 (claim)
tive
hypoth
eses.
b.
Select
the
level Based on the problem, α = 0.01.
of
signific
ance.
c. The test statistic is z-test (two-tailed).
Identif
y the
approp
riate
test-
statisti
c and
determ
ine
wheth
er it is
one-
tailed
or two-
tailed.

Refer on the table and use α = 0.01 at two-tailed test, the critical value
is ±2.5758.

d.
Deter
mine
the
critical
value
and
the
rejecti
on
region/
s.
e.
Comp
ute the
test
statisti
c.
 Using the t-computed value, -2.8284 and t-tabular value, ±2.5758 and based
on the decision rule table above,
f.
State
the
decisio
n rule.
2.8284 > 2.5758
Reject Ho
g.
State
There is no enough evidence to show that the weight of pack of biscuits is
the
250 g.
conclu
sion.

 
Using the examples above, using the steps of the hypothesis testing of one sample z-
test and t-test, take note that there are always two possible outcomes. If the result
confirms the hypothesis, you’ve made measurements. If the result is contrary to the
claim, you’ve made a discovery. We may not have proved our claims, but at least we
discovered something. Who knows if this discovery will significantly change and impact
ourselves, our beliefs, and eventually, the society to which we belong.
 
GENERALIZATION
 
          Parametric tests are statistical tests for population parameters such as means,
variances, and proportions that involve assumptions about the populations from which
the samples were selected.
Things to consider…
 Data is normally distributed.
 Data have equal variance and same standard deviation.
 Data is continuous (interval/ratio).

          While nonparametric statistics to use when the population from which the

samples are selected is not normally distributed. Nonparametric statistics can also be
used to test hypotheses that do not involve specific population parameters, such as μ,
σ, or ρ.
Things to consider…
 If the data do not meet the criteria for parametric test.
  Data are categorical (nominal/ordinal).
The z-test is a statistical test for the mean of a population. It can be used when n ≥ 30,
or when the population is normally distributed and σ is known. On the other hand, to
compare a sample mean with the population mean when the population standard
deviation is not known, and when the sample size is less than 30, the one-sample t-test is
used. The degree of freedom (d.f.) is n – 1.

Follow the steps in hypothesis testing to make a sound conclusion.

 
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) states a specific difference between a parameter
and a specific value.
 Null Hypothesis (Ho) states that there is no difference between a parameter and
a specific value.
2. State the level of significance (α).
          Use the specified level of significance. Common levels of significance are
10%,5% and 1%.
3. Identify the appropriate test-statistic and determine whether it is one-tailed
or two-tailed.
  Two-tailed Test One-tailed Test
    Right-tailed Left-tailed
Ho = ≤ ≥
Ha ≠ >  < 
4. Determine the critical value and the rejection region/s.
  Two-tailed Test One-tailed Test
     Right-tailed Left-tailed
Ha ≠ >  < 
Rejection region Both sides Right side Left side
 To illustrate the rejection region/s:

Note: If the test is two-tailed, the critical value will either be positive or negative. If the
test is left-tailed, the critical value will be negative. If the test is right-tailed, the critical
value will be positive.
5. Compute the test statistic.
6. State the decision rule.
7. State the conclusion.
Hypothesis Testing of Two-samples Z-test
Learning Objectives:
            At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
o perform the test of hypothesis using z-test.
o apply the formula of z-test in solving for the computed value; and,
o test the difference between two means for independent samples using the two-
sample z-test.  
You have learned how to solve using one-sample z-test and t-test. This week, you will
learn how to solve using two-samples z-test. Before we start our discussion let’s recall
some of the basic terminologies that we need for today’s discussion.

What are the things that you need to remember before using
Two-samples Z-test?

Hypothesis Testing is a method that uses sample data to decide between

two competing claims about a population characteristic.
Hypothesis is a claim or statement either about the value of a single
population characteristic or about the values of several populations.
The Null Hypothesis denoted by Ho is a claim about a population
characteristic that is initially assumed to be true.
The Alternative Hypothesis denoted by Ha is the competing claim.
 
Let’s recall the how to identify if what tailed-test we are going to apply using
the given table.

Note: If the hypothesis is assuming that the two-sample means are equal, always use the two-
tailed test. If the hypothesis is assuming that the one sample mean is greater than or less than
the other sample mean, always use the one-tailed test.
 
When do we use Two- samples Z-test?
TWO SAMPLES Z-TEST
Z-test when the number of sample size is greater than 30 or at least 30 and
the population standard deviation is
known.                                                                                                             
                                                       
Two Sample Z-Test is used when we want to compare the population
means between two independent sample groups.
For today’s discussion we will concentrate on Z-test specifically Two
Sample Means. 
 
Z test: Two Sample means formula.
Table of Critical values

GENERAL PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED IN USING THE Z-TEST.

1. Formulate the null and the alternative hypothesis
2. Specify the level of significance and decide whether a one-tailed test
or two-tailed test
3. Decide the test statistic to be used.
4. Compute for the value of the test statistics used using the sample
data.
5. Make a decision

Critical Value Approach

P-value Approach

    6. State the Conclusion.