College of Education STAT 301 –

ELEMENTARY STATISTICS
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. Define statistics,
b. Discuss the history of Statistics
c. Give the scope of Statistics, and
d. Differentiate the two branches of Statistics.
e. Understand the terns related to Statistics,
f. Identify the different categories and types of variables,
g. Differentiate population from a sample,
h. Distinguish parametric test from non-parametric tests
i. Define and distinguish nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales, Key Words:
 Statistics
 Definitions of Statistics
 History of Statistics
 Significance of Statistics
 Realities about Statistics
 Areas of Statistics
 Variables
 Types of Variables
 Classification of Variables
 Statistical Terms
 2 Kinds of Statistical Test
 Different Kinds of Parametric Test
 Different Kinds of Non-Parametric Test
 4 Levels of Measurement

Meaning and Importance of Statistics Statistics

It is imperative that every Filipino student have a clear understanding of the nature and
definition of Statistics as a field of discipline. However, understanding the nature of
statistics requires the students to go beyond its definition and appreciate its application.
Statistics plays important roles in the society – education, economy, politics, religion and
other aspect of living. Statistics as a branch of science could be defined in its singular
and plural sense.
Definition of Statistics
Plural Sense: Statistics pertains to numerical data or figures that can be presented and
counted out of observations done by individual.
Example: Peso-dollar exchange rates
Scores in an exam
Salary
Number of household members
Pulse rate
Singular Sense: Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection,
tabulation and presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data that can be used

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when making
decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Thus, Statistics pertains to a specific and systematic method of processing numerical
and quantitative information for a more accurate decision making.
History of Statistics
Mankind has been using statistics for thousands of years. Simple form of Statistics
have been used to record numbers of people, animals, and inanimate object on skins,
slabs, or sticks of wood and the walls of the cave. Before 3,000 B.C. the Babylonians
used small clay tablets to record tabulations of agricultural yields and of commodities.
The Egyptians analyzed the population and material wealth of their country before
building a pyramid. Aside from secular records, common use of simple form of Statistics
could be seen in Biblical accounts such as the one recorded in Numbers 31:25-41 when
during the times of Moses, Statistics were gathered for purposes such as taxation,
military service and priestly duties.

The word “Statistics” has evolved from the word “Statistik” which was popularized by a
German political scientist Gottfried Achenwall. The word was derived from Latin word
“Status” or the Italian word “Statista” which means “State”. Its English use was
introduced early in the 19th Century by Sir John Sinclair to mean “the collection and
classification of data”.
Significance of Statistics
Statistics is valuable especially in these present times which are bombarded with
countless figures of data and information. Good decisions are driven by data. Proper
evaluation and interpretation of these data could be useful in making that best decision
for practically every facet of man’s daily activities. Consider the following examples on
the areas below:
Society. When Statistics reveal that there is a big increase in crimes such as fraud,
forgery, and false pretenses, this helps the authorities to decide how to best deploy
available police forces.
Business and Industry. Business owners face may situations with outcomes that seem
unpredictable. For example, a company’s main supplier of a key batch of parts could
offer a lower cost, but could pose uncertainty in delivery time. Data and Statistics can be
used to concretely define and measure this uncertainty and predict the next shipment.
Managerial decision-making with this statistical insight can avoid possibilities of
production costs mismanagement and damaged customer service.
Transportation Safety. Statistics gathered on road accidents help authorities to
determine which days or months necessitate a greater policing of driving habits. It is
also because of accident statistics that some areas have introduced the compulsory
wearing of seat belts in automobiles.
Peace and Order. Police officers also use statistics in several ways. One among others
is to find out intersections with highest accident rates. With this knowledge, they are
able to increase security in those areas and reduce the number of accidents. They also
study crime rates in different neighborhoods to know if there is a need for additional
police force.
Sports. Statistics are used to determine team rankings and player ratings, to modify the
rules of competition, and for sports reporting. Sports recruiters use statistics to check
out potential athletes. Sports teams also use statistics to prepare for upcoming

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opponents. They observe which players on the opposing teams are currently doing well.
They also use statistics to decide which players are doing well to predict which players
will bring the best results for the game.
Consumers. The people who purchase merchandise for retail stores also use statistics.
In the fashion industry, for example, they identify styles and colors which sold best in
previous seasons before deciding what to buy.
Health. Health statistics can help identify factors that promote wellness or create risks
for health. It also helps determine behavioral, genetic, physical, and communicable
threats that contribute to illness – thereby helping scientists to better understand the
etiology of disease (Ex. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Reports). It can also help conclude the
causes of death, conditions of birth, and the incidence and prevalence of morbidity – the
conditions that threaten health. These can be inferred from the compilation and analysis
of information collected from vital statistics.
Agriculture. Statistics in agriculture is of great importance in a variety of areas; for
instance statistics allows evaluation of treatment differences and determine whether or
not the differences that exist are due to the treatments applied. These results into
meaningful comparisons decide what production practices are beneficial and which are
not.
Realities about Statistics
Mark Twain a well-known writer said that in this world, there are three kinds of
lies; lies, damned lies, and statistics. Why Statistics? Man use statistics and act in the
image of statisticians to collect irrelevant facts and figures and uses them to manipulate
and influence the society. Corrupt politicians and other authorities can use statistics to
manipulate and change facts for their personal interest.
Professor Aaron Levenstein pointed out that statistics are like bikinis. What they
reveal is suggestive, but what they conceal is vital. This only implies that statistics plays
vital role in the lives of every individual and the true application of statistics can be
observed every day. Areas of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics is the discipline of quantitatively describing main features of a
collection of data without drawing conclusions about a large group. Descriptive Statistics
includes statistical procedures to describe either a sample or a population. It can only be
used to describe the group that is being studied and results are not used to draw
conclusions to any larger group. Descriptive Statistics can be thought of as a
straightforward presentation of facts.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics is concerned with the analysis of a subset of data or sample
leading to predictions or inferences about the entire set of data or population.

Terms and Symbols Used in Statistics

Variables
Variables are figures or any characteristics, numbers, or quantity that can be measured
or counted and varies over time and on different individual or object under
consideration. Arrows are used to illustrate relationships among variables.
Examples:

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 Scores in Math Quiz
Age of students in a class
Weight
Age
Salary
Business income and expenses
Vehicle type
Students Performance
Types of Variables
TYPES OF VARIABLES EXAMPLES
1. Independent Variable. Sometimes a. Methods of Teachings
called an experimental or predictor b. Home Educational Materials
variable, this is a variable that is
manipulated in an experiment to
observe the effect on a dependent
variable. Independent variable is
presumed to be the cause of an
observed outcome.
2. Dependent Variable. Also called a. Students Performance
an outcome variable that is b. Students Motivation to Study
presumed to be the effect of an
observed outcome. Simply put, it is
the variable that is dependent on
an independent variable(s).

Classification of Variables
A variable assumes different values or descriptions. There are different ways variables
can be categorized according to the manner of measurement and presentation.
Qualitative Variable – also called Categorical Variable. It describes the qualities or
characteristics of the samples.
Quantitative Variable – is a variable that give numerical responses representing an
amount or number of something. Quantitative variable could be either discrete or
continuous.
Discrete Quantitative Variable – is also called countable variable. It assumes fixed or
countable values of something being scheduled.
Continuous Quantitative Variable – is also called non countable variable. It cannot
take on finite values but the values are associated with points on an interval of the real
line.
Statistical Terms
Measurement. It is the process done by individual to determine the value or label of the
variable based on what has been observed.
Observation. It is defined as the realized value of the variable.

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Population. It is the collection of things or observational units under consideration. It is
an aggregate set of individuals with varied characteristics and could be classify
according to age and sex.
Statistical Population. It is the set of all possible values of the variable.
3 Factors Affecting Population
1. Fertility – this pertains to the birthrate in a community
2. Mortality – this is the death rate in a community
3. Migration – this is the number of people moving in and out of a
community
Sample. It is commonly defined as the subset of population that shares the same
characteristics of the population.
Sampling. It is a process of selecting a part of subset of a population.
Common Reasons for Sampling
1. Limited budget
2. Time constraints
3. Lack of manpower
4. Accessibility
5. Peace and order of the area
6. Size of the population
7. Availability and cost of the experimental materials
Information. It is limited to useful facts that an analyst or a decision maker can use in
solving problems.
Parameter. It is a set of numerical figures describing the characteristic of population.
Data mining. It is simply the process of examining or going to the details of the data.
Important details are carefully studied and scrutinized.
Sex. It is the biological description of a person either a male or a female.
Operational Definition. It is how you define the word/s according to its use and
information.
2 Kinds of Statistical Test
1. Parametric Test requires normality of the distribution and the levels of
measurement should be either interval or ratio.

Different Kinds of Parametric Test

a. T-test
b. Z-test
c. F-test
d. Analysis of Variance
e. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
f. Simple Linear Regression
g. Multiple Regression Analysis

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of all its contents is prohibited. © 2021
 2. Non-
parametric Test does not require normality of the distribution and the levels of
measurement must be either interval or ordinal.

Different Kinds of Non-Parametric Test

a. Chi-square test
b. U-test
c. H-test
d. Sign test
e. Friedman test
f. Kendall Coefficient
g. Spearman Rank Order Coefficient 4 Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal Level. It is the simplest among the four measurement scales. It is
not actually a scale because it does not measure or scale objects along any
dimension. It simply labels or categorizes objects according to its use and
purpose. There is no ranking or ordering can be made on the data. Nominal
scales represent the lowest level of measurement
2. Ordinal Level. It possesses the properties of the nominal level that is why it is
considered an improvement of the nominal level. In this level, data can be
placed into categories and these categories can be ordered or rank. It can be
ranked from lowest to highest or vice versa. But, we should remember that
there is no information regarding the differences between points on the scale
and that precise measurement of differences in the ordinal level of
measurement does not exist.
3. Interval Level. It possesses the properties of two preceding measurement
scales. Interval level differs from ordinal level because in this level, precise
differences exist between two numbers or two units.
4. Ratio Level. It possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and
interval levels. It is a level with an additional property. Its zero position
indicates the absence of the quantity being measured.
Research Questions:

1. Research how the following “gurus” contributed to Statistics.

a. Gottfried Achenwall
b. Sir John Sinclair
c. Chevalier De Nere
d. Francis Galton
e. Charles Darwin
f. Karl Pearson
g. Ronald Alymer Fisher
2. Why use Parametric Tests?

Summary:
 Statistics
 Statistics pertains to numerical data or figures that can be presented and
counted out of observations done by individual. History of Statistics
 Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection, tabulation
and presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data that can be used
when making decisions in the face of uncertainty.

This material is exclusively for Northeastern College students ONLY. Any redistribution or reproduction of part or
of all its contents is prohibited. © 2021
  S
tatistics pertains to a specific and systematic method of processing
numerical and quantitative information for a more accurate decision
making.
 History of Statistics
 The word “Statistics” has evolved from the word “Statistik” which was
popularized by a German political scientist Gottfried Achenwall. The word
was derived from Latin word “Status” or the Italian word “Statista” which
means “State”. Its English use was introduced early in the 19 th Century by
Sir John Sinclair to mean “the collection and classification of data”.
 Significance of Statistics
 Society
 Business and Industry
 Transportation Safety
 Peace and Order
 Sports
 Consumers  Health.
 Agriculture
 Areas of Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics
 Inferential Statistics
 Variables
 Types of Variables
 Independent Variable
 Dependent Variable
 Classification of Variables
 Qualitative Variable
 Quantitative Variable
 Discrete Quantitative Variable
 Continuous Quantitative Variable
 Statistical Terms
 Measurement
 Observation
 Population
 Statistical Population
× 3 Factors Affecting Population
1. Fertility
2. Mortality
3. Migration

 Sample
 Sampling
 Common Reasons for Sampling
1. Limited budget
2. Time constraints
3. Lack of manpower
4. Accessibility
5. Peace and order of the area
6. Size of the population
7. Availability and cost of the experimental materials

This material is exclusively for Northeastern College students ONLY. Any redistribution or reproduction of part or
of all its contents is prohibited. © 2021
  I
nformation
 Parameter
 Data mining
 Sex
 Operational Definition
 2 Kinds of Statistical Test
 Parametric Test
 Non-parametric Test
 Different Kinds of Parametric Test
 T-test
 Z-test
 F-test
 Analysis of Variance
 Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
 Simple Linear Regression
 Multiple Regression Analysis
 Different Kinds of Non-Parametric Test
 Chi-square test
 U-test
 H-test
 Sign test
 Friedman test
 Kendall Coefficient
 Spearman Rank Order Coefficient
 4 Levels of Measurement  Nominal Level.
 Ordinal Level
 Interval Level
 Ratio Level

References:

Sirug W. (2015). Basic Probability and Statistics. Intramuros, Manila, Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Dañas, J., Lumberio C. (2015). Introductory to Elementary Statistics. Intramuros, Manila,
Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Pagala R. (2011). Statistics. Intramuros, Manila, Mindshapers Co., Inc.

This material is exclusively for Northeastern College students ONLY. Any redistribution or reproduction of part or
of all its contents is prohibited. © 2021