AGC321-CROP PEST

MANAGEMENT
(Lecture 7)
Stephen Mushimwa Chileshe
25 October 2022
stephenmushimwa@yahoo.com 1
LAST TIME WE MET, WE WERE TALKING ABOUT…
 Sprayequipment
 Tank mixing

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INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

Overview of IPM
 In a broad sense, IPM can be defined as ‘the careful consideration
of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration
of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest
populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels
that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to
human health and the environment’.
 IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least
possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest
control mechanisms (FAO, 2002).
 Securing food production and community concerns for
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environmental and human health are the key drivers of IPM.
OVERVIEW OF IPM

 Secondary pest outbreaks due to the use of broad spectrum

pesticides that eliminate even natural enemies, has reduced the
popularity of conventional pest control methods.
 For this reason, the IPM philosophy is for incorporation of
management techniques that are not only environmentally sound
but also economically feasible.
 IPM is a philosophy that recognizes that there is no ‘cure-all’
pest management method.
 Dependency on one tactic will favour pests that are
resistant to that practice.
 Elimination of susceptible pests reduces competition against the
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resistant ones (that are not killed by the pesticide) but instead are
encouraged to breed and increase in number.
 Therefore, by integrating control methods, chances are
very limited that any one pest can be favoured by all the
methods employed.
 IPM emphasizes preventative practices and
balancing strengths of one practice against the
weaknesses of another to provide a more complete
or holistic pest management approach.
 Use of chemicals can be part of an IPM program, but they
are generally used sparingly and as a last resort.
 In IPM, proper identification of pests, especially major
pests, is required in order to effectively control them.
 Understand the pest biology (life cycle, over-wintering
stage, damage impacts on the host crops, its favourable
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ecological requirements and its most vulnerable growth
stage (s)).
 Knowledge about the most vulnerable stages
informs decisions about timeliness in the
application of pesticides as this improves their
efficacy.
 In addition, before applying pesticides, we need to
answer the questions:
Is the pest present in economical
proportions?
Is the pest at a life stage that is

susceptible to the pesticide?

Is the crop at a stage when yield loss is 6

preventable?
Importance of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Single solutions are unsustainable in the long
term
● Example 1: hand hoe weeding only requires a lot of
labour. It also puts too much pressure on women
and children.
● Example 2: using herbicides only can lead to weeds
developing herbicide resistance and environmental
degradation.
IPM uses a combination of multiple practices to
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maximize pest control
From CropLife IPM Trainee Manual (2011) 8
Benefits of IPM
Long-term reduction in pests
Environmental sustainability
● Reduced pesticide use, reduced risk of
waterbody contamination, reduced risk of
pesticide resistance in target species
Economic sustainability
● Reduced labor costs, reduced input costs,
greater yields
Social sustainability 9

● Reduced reliance on human labor

CHALLENGES OF IPM
Requires more knowledge
● Knowledge of pest cycles
● Knowledge of appropriate strategies

Requires greater management

● Specific to each area, farmer, etc.
● IPM is very context-specific

Requires patience and flexibility 10

OBJECTIVES OF IPM

Reduce reliance on single solutions

Keep pests and weeds below an
economic threshold
Reduce unwanted negative
consequences
● Killing non-target species
● Developing pesticide resistance
● Contamination of waterbodies 11
IPM STRATEGIES AND TACTICS

 IPM is a decision-based pest management approach

where the planning process anticipates damage and
attempts to prevent it from occurring.
 But if damage thresholds are reached, it employs a
combination of control tactics to suppress the pest
population.
 Thus in using IPM, both strategic and tactical
approaches to managing pests are considered.
 Strategic components of IPM essentially set the structure
and context of the production system (the crop and the 12

surrounding environment).
IPM STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
 IPM strategies include resolutions on such issues
as
a. Choice of crop to be grown,
b. Choice of crop varieties, including those
with pest resistance traits (conventional or
GMO),
c. Location of fields in relation to other crops
or natural vegetation,
d. Timing of planting and the rates of
fertilizers to be applied 13
IPM STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
The following are the common tactics:
a. Regular crop monitoring and sampling.
b. The use of action or economic thresholds that indicate
the point at which pest management interventions are
necessary or will be economically relevant.
c. Release of beneficial species which could be predators,
parasitoids, application of pathogens or nematodes – as a direct
pest-suppression measure.
d. Use of various cultural practices and tillage that directly
impact on pests.
f. Use of biological pesticides or selective synthetic pesticides
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that do not disrupt species other than the target pest.
IPM STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
Tactics can be considered under four main
categories practised as follows:
1. Prevention – This includes practices that are
synonymous with biosecurity best practices.
Examples of such practices are:
i. Destruction of the green bridge (alternative
hosts)
ii. Controlling in-field weeds prior to planting
iii. Sowing disease-free propagules
iv. Cleaning cultivation or harvesting equipment 15
used between fields.
2. Avoidance – Under this tactic, we employ tactics that
minimise the chance of a susceptible crop being attacked by the
pest(s).
i. Practising crop rotation
ii. Fields with notorious pest problems left fallow for some
years.
iii. Selecting pest-resistant plant varieties. This includes
genetically manipulated crops such Bt cotton.
iv. Using agronomy to optimise crop growth e.g. in-season
nutrient management.
v. Changing of sowing date – most damaging stage of insect
is at a time when the crop is least vulnerable or not at all.
vi. Harvesting the crop as early as possible to minimise
exposure to pests 16
3. Monitoring – monitoring is done as a data collection
exercise to guide decisions on pest management.
 This involves such activities as pest and natural enemy
identification, maintenance of records on which
prevention, avoidance and suppression decisions are
based.
 In pest monitoring use of insect traps is helpful in
providing information about the trend of insect
population growth.
 Insects caught in traps should be counted and analysed
to determine if the numbers are going up or down.
 Also, traps located on different borders of the field can
help show if insects are coming into the field from the 17

outside.
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SCOUTING
 This is an important pest monitoring tool in IPM.
 It is important to randomly select points where to sample plants so
that the results can be as representative as possible.
• Walk a random pattern to ensure that the field is thoroughly
covered; conventionally, this can be in an ‘M’ or ‘W’ pattern (zig-zag).
Since scouting should be as many times as required, never enter a
field at the same place each time.
• Do not scout 5 m within the field borders as the pest
population may not be representative of the whole field.
 While walking in the selected pattern, randomly select the places
where you stop and sample for pests.
 For example, you might select your next site by stopping in a spot
that is 20 steps ahead (or to the left or right in not following the ‘M’ 19

pattern) of your present position.

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Number of stops to make in a field

Field Size (hectares) Number of Stops

up to 10 5

11 - 25 8

26- 40 10

more than 40 Split into two fields

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4. Suppression – we are taking
action to minimise crop loss –or else!
This category of tactics uses a
combination of physical, biological
and chemical methods as curative
measures.
Chemical control is the very last
option.
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STRATEGIES UNDER IPM

1.The Use of Improved crop Varieties

Improved crop varieties are often more
competitive with weeds
Some may have resistance to certain insect
pests and diseases
Unaffected plants will produce higher yields,
which may offset pest damage
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WHAT IS BT MAIZE?
 Maize farmers, are challenged with a number of pests, but some of
the most important are lepidopteran larvae (i.e., caterpillars)
that are stalk borers, ear or leaf feeders, and coleopteran larvae
(i.e., beetle grubs) that feed on roots.
 The European maize borer, Ostrinia nubilalis, for example, was
nicknamed the "billion dollar bug" because it cost farmers over a
billion dollars annually in insecticides and lost crop yields.
 Most maize growers rely on traditional crop protection practices to
manage these insects, including cultural, biological or chemical
(insecticide) methods or a balance of these methods that aims to
minimize environmental impact called integrated pest
management (IPM) (Hellmich et al. 2008).
 However, in 1996 USA farmers were introduced to commercial
maize that was genetically modified (GM) with resistance to 26
maize stalk borer and other lepidopteran maize pests.
 In 2003 another GM maize was introduced that killed
corn rootworm larvae (beetle grubs).
 These GM plants produce crystal (Cry) proteins or
toxins derived from the soil bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt), hence the common name “Bt maize”.
 Bt insecticides are popular with organic farmers because
they are considered "natural insecticides" and they
differ from most conventional insecticides because they
are toxic to only a small range of related insects.
 This is because specific pH levels, enzymes, and midgut
receptors are required to activate and bind a given Cry
toxin to midgut cells, which leads to pore formation in the
insect's intestine and death (Federici 2002). 27
WHY GROW BT MAIZE?
 Farmers are attracted to the convenience of Bt maize
hybrids because they allow for "in the bag" insect
protection.
 GM maize seed comes from the seller with innate pest
resistance.
 Functionally, this means that farmers will be handling and
applying fewer chemical insecticides, which has both health
benefits for them and important environmental benefits.
 It also of course means farmers can spend less time
applying insecticides but still be confident in the protection
of their crop from key pests.
 Furthermore, farmers are attracted to the yield protection 28

and improved grain quality commonly found with Bt maize.

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BT COTTON
Advantages Limitations
 High insect specificity
 Control crop damage and
 Susceptible to
disease vectors resistance
 Nontoxic to non-target
species
 High seed cost
 Biodegradable
 Reduction of other
insecticides
 94.5 million kg (19.4%) from
1996 to 2005 for cotton
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 Yield increases
To Bt or not to
Bt?

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2. USE OF CORRECT PLANT SPACING AND SEED RATES
 Increasing planting density and planting in
narrower rows may help crop outcompete weeds
 Too high of a planting density and rows that are
too narrow can also lead to competition amongst
crop plants
 Incorrect planting density and row spacing can
also increase disease and insect pressure
 Thin seedlings as needed
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3. CHANGING PLANTING DATES

Understanding pest cycles is important

when making decisions about planting time
● Example 1: planting before a weed species
typically emerges could allow the crop to
outcompete the weed
● Example 2: planting after an insect pest is in
its most destructive phase could limit crop
damage
● Creating a planting and management calendar can help you better
plan according to pest life cycles and identify patterns in future
seasons 35
● Not always possible, due to rains or other factors.
4. KEEP YOUR PLANTS HEALTHY ALL THE TIME

Healthy plants are more competitive

Water management: avoid drought stress or
“wet feet”
Nutrient management: apply fertilizers at
the correct time and in the correct amount

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5. FIELD SANITATION

Weeds, diseases, and insects are often

spread from farm to farm
Clean tools and equipment after using and
before sharing
Remove dead or diseased plants from the
field
Be sure compost matures enough to kill
weed seeds and pathogens 37
6. INTERCROPPING AND RELAY CROPPING
 Intercropping and relay cropping break up pest cycles
 Need a good understanding of crop growth cycles

 Must time carefully in order to avoid shading effects

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A cowpea - groundnut intercropping system

(Lopez, 2013)
7. CROP ROTATION

Rotating crops breaks up pest

cycles
Rotate crops with different growth
habits
● Example 1: Soybean and maize
● Example 2: Cowpea and sorghum
Rotate crops with different life
cycles 39
 Example of how crop rotation can be
designed for a field infested with soybean
cyst nematode. In this case, soybean,
maize, sorghum, and cotton are rotated.

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8. WISE USE OF PESTICIDES
 Pesticides can be used when pest pressure
surpasses the economic threshold
 Pesticides should be used in conjunction with
other pest management practices
 Pesticides should only be applied by a qualified or
well-trained individual using the appropriate
personal protective equipment

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