Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Laughter
Humor and
Laughter
Theory, Research,
and Applications
Antony J. Chapman
and Hugh (X Foot
Editors
With a new introduction by Peter Derks
Originally published in 1976 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
BF575.L3H87 1995
152.4—dc20 95-23378
CIP
Introduction .
Antony J. Chapman and Hugh C. Foot
Index 343
Introduction to the Transaction Edition
Twenty Years ofResearch on Humor:
A View from the Edge
THEORY
This background indicates that personality was a first and important step to get
theory, then application, off the ground. A model that related humor to personal-
ity through content was only a beginning, however, and not very satisfactory at
that From the standpoint of philosophical, rational theories, to say that jokes
aboilt a topic are appreciated by someone with an interest in that topic seems to
say little about the basic mechanism of humor.
Manipulation of salience
One of the most influential experiments on content and amusement was by
Goldstein, Suls, and Anthony (1972). Instead of passively measuring what people
liked, they primed their participants with particular topics. The most extensive
X
.APPLICATION
The paradigm to assess the value of humor is the inverse of that for rl;o.!b>!1mi,nin
1!:£: nature. Humor is presented and its effects on happiness, health, r.,.,,~+imii'"'
and so forth are measured. Although Cousins (1979) did not invent either the
paradigm or the hypothesis, "laughter is the best medicine," he certainly fo-
cused attention on their possibilities. As has often been reported, he watched
''Candid Camera" episodes to relieve a rheumatism-like inflammation of the
vertebrae that results in munobility and paLn (ankylosing spondylitis). The treat~
ment was a success. Vvnat is not always mentioned is that he also took massive
doses of vitamln-C and took charge of his situation by checking out of the hos-
pital and into his own room. Langer (1989) has shown that such "mindful" ac-
tion can relieve symptoms by itself. The role of humor as a monolithic panacea
xvi
was left uncertain through lack of control and, amazingly, lack of a replication.
Goldstein (1987) has given a sobering evaluation of the topic. More significant
than the humor manipulation was Cousins' (1989) contribution to the whole
concept of psychological concern for the patient as well as the physiological
treatment of a disease.
In essence, the paradigm suffers from two related problems. First, since hu-
mor had not been well defmed, the type of humor used has not always been
evaluated. There were, however, exceptions. For example, Baron (1978a) found
that while hostile humor would increase the amount of shock that a person was
willing to give an obnoxious confederate, less hostile humor would reduce it.
Even "exploitive" sexual humorreduced the administration of an apparent shock
(Baron, 1978b). Therefore, humor type was critical in determining its "thera-
peutic" value.
Second, the selection of the individuals with their different experiences and
personalities and their consequent reaction to the different humor types was
usually left to chance. This analysis was the goal of the humor-personality tests.
The practical jokes that were the basis for "Candid Camera" were usually ag-
gressive, and Cousins was fond of practical jokes. This appropriate match of
salience is not usually manipulated.
PETER DERKS
July 1995
NOTES
Thanks to Kim Binsted, Willi Ruch, and Rod Martin, as well as the editors of this volume,
for their willingness to give assistance and advice. Their information and suggestions are
appreciated although they were not all used or taken.
1. 1hanks to W. Larry Ventis for making this point explicit
2. Thanks to Howard Pollio for emphasizing this distinction.
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Preface
It is ahnost twenty years since the publication of our edited volume on the psy-
chology humor and laughter and, in some respects, little has changed. Many of
the problems that challenged us then are still the subject of theoretical and em-
pirical enquiry. Sex and aggression in humor are still recurrent themes in re-
search; humor as a means of resolving incongruity, and of expressing
disparagement and superiority has remained a lively issue; and the eternal search
for personality correlates of humor is never far below the surface in explorations
of humor appreciation.
The changes that have occurred have been more in the manner in which re-
search has been conducted. The series of International Conferences on Humour
which started in Cardiff in 1976 and have continued annually or biennually
brought together humor researchers from a variety of disciplines. Thls has re-
sulted in a move away from the lone, maverick researcher to a more integrated
and collaborative research endeavor. Humor research has, therefore, "found" its
academic community and benefitted from more concerted research approaches.
In his introductory chapter Peter Derks has highlighted many of the lines of
research that have attracted attention over the past two decades and, while many
of these themes are just the same, significant advances have been made in our
understanding. We are, for example, clearer about the relationship between per-
sonality type and humor appreciation. The pioneering work of Willi Ruch has
succeeded in developing measures which differentiate various personality styles
on the basis of different types of humor appreciation, a relationship which had
largely eluded previous researchers. We also know more now about the link
between expressions of amusement and ratings of funniness and have a clearer
idea about how to measure them properly. In addition to the continued emphasis
upon personality dimensions, research has also remained focused upon the situ-
ational determinants of humor and its potential as a social skilL Its function as a
coping mechanism in different kinds of social situations has been more fully
explored. Through the work of Rod Martin and others we understand better the
manner in which it is used to control our social interactions, to cope with stress
and to improve our sense of well-being.
In its applications, too, present-day research themes echo those of the 1970's
and we have expanded our knowledge of the value of humor for alleviating
unhappiness, depression, and anxiety and for changing our self-image. As Derks
argues, "humor works on the whole physiology and psychology of an individual";
xxviii
it activates our state of mood and our state of arousal and sharpens our senses in
a variety of ways. While many scholars of humor had an implicit belief that
humor can facilitate our acquisition of knowledge there is now much stronger
empirical support for the claim that it can improve attention in the classroom,
help us recall objects and facts, and stimulate creativity of thought by encourag-
ing more flexible thinking.
Research has moved us forward. It isn't just a question of more of the same.
There have been qualitative as well as quantitative advances in our understand-
ing, and we have a better methodological base for developing appropriate mea-
sures and tools. Humor research is still exciting and still challenging: the extra
precision in our methods of enquiry does not detract one jot from the essential
fun and interest of putting humor under the microscope. The chapters in this
book are still refreshing and stimulating to re-read. They still offer insights into
human nature and are still a sound platform for new research.
We look forward with interest to the next twenty years.
ANTONY J. CHAPMAN
HuaHC. FooT
July 1995
Preface
This book is concerned with the psychology of humour and laughter and is
designed to bring together in a single volume some of the most important
current thinking and research in these subjects. Most of the fifteen chapters are
written by psychologists with long-standing academic interests in humour
and laughter. Many of our authors are engaged in on-going projects and have
been working in the area for some years. It is their published works which have
largely provided the impetus for the recent upsurge of interest in empirical
studies. The chapters they have written for the book map out, therefore, the
main areas in which research is currently being conducted. Also well represented
in the book is the wide variety of techniques employed in examining the key
issues relating to humour and laughter. The reader will find approaches ranging
from rigorous controlled scientific study, through in-depth, personalized
analyses, to the purely anecdotal. The elusive and ephemeral nature of humour
and laughter demands that we retain a broad-based methodology if research
as a whole is to progress fruitfully.
The book is divided into two sections, the first focusing upon theoretical
developments and the second dealing with the uses of humour in society and
professional relationships. Chapters in Section I concentrate particularly upon
incongruity, superiority and arousal theories, and upon humour and laughter
in social settings. Chapters in Section II are concerned with humour in relation
to creativity, West Indian calypso, and mass communication, and the final
chapters in the Section speculate about the potential value of humour in
psychotherapy. The format generally adopted by authors in both Sections is to
review their own research in the context of empirical and theoretical literatures
and to present in addition some fresh ideas and new data.
We envisage that our book will appeal to many research-oriented behavioural
scientists and that the main readership will be drawn from those with academic
or professional interests in social, child and clinical psychology, sociology,
education, and other related disciplines. In general it will be of interest to all
those who are concerned with human attributes, human emotions and social
interaction. This will include many embarking on studies of behaviours which,
like laughter, are difficult to subject to systematic investigation. The book
addresses many crucial questions about humour and laughter and aims to
direct future research in ways which appear most likely to produce a coherent
XXX
body of knowledge. We hope that those taking up new research find the book a
stimulating and enlightening source of ideas. We hope also that they find it
provides some insights into ways of tackling investigations into these fascinating
topics.
There are in fact very few situations to which laughter is not appropriate. We laugh
when the sea touches our navel ... But we only laugh in company ... We laugh at
something because it is familiar and something else because it is unfamiliar. We
laugh at misfortunes if they do not incur danger, though what constitutes 'danger'
varies enormously between nations and centuries. The day before yesterday, in
ethnological time, we laughed to see a lunatic on the end of a chain, or a bear tied to a
post and bitten to death by dogs ... We laugh because other people are laughing
uncontrollably; but controlled or calculated laughter, on the other hand, can drive
our own smiles underground for hours. We laugh if and because we are supposed
not to laugh ...
Then there is the laugh which fills up the blank in the conversation ... The laugh
to attract attention ... The laugh of the lone man at the theatre, who wishes to show
4
he understands ... The laugh of creative pleasure ... The laugh of relief from
physical danger ... [and so on].
(Reprinted by permission of A. D. Peters and Company).
REFERENCES
Allport, G. W. (1960). The Individual and His Religion. New York: Macmillan.
Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Bergler, E. (1956). Laughter and the Sense of Humor. New York: Grune and Stratton.
Berlyne, D. E. (1969). Laughter, humor and play. In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Eds.),
Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 3. (2nd Ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-
Wesley.
Carlson, E. R. (1966). The affective tone of psychology. Journal of General Psychology,
75, 65-78.
Darwin, C. (1890). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: John
Murray.
Dewey, J. (1894). The theory of emoti_on. Psychological Review, 1, 553-569.
Erskine, J. (1928). Humor. Century, 115,421-426.
Escarpit, R. (1969). Humorous attitude and scientific inventivity. Impact, 19, 253-258.
Flugel, J. C. (1954). Humor and laughter. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook of Social Psy-
chology, Vol. 2. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Friedman, B. (1969). The editor comments. Impact, 19, 223-224.
Ghosh, R. (1939). An experimental study of humour. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 9, 98-99.
Giles, H., and Oxford, G. S. (1970). Towards a multidimensional theory of laughter
causation and its social implications. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 23,
97-105.
Hall, G. S., and Allin, A. (1897). The psychology of tickling, laughter and the comic.
American Journal of Psychology, 9, 1-42.
Hooff, J. A. R. A.M. van. (1972). A comparative approach to the phylogeny oflaughter
and smiling. In R. A. Hinde (Ed.), Non-verbal Communication. Cambridge University
Press.
Jonson, B. (1599). Every Man Out of His Humour. [Extract in P. Lauter (1964) Theories of
Comedy. New York: Doubleday].
Keith-Spiegel, K. (1969). Preface to symposium proceedings. Social Aspects of Humor:
Recent Research and Theory. Western Psychological Association Meeting, Vancouver.
Lindauer, M. S. (1968). Pleasant and unpleasant emotions in the literature: as compared to
the affective tone of psychology. Journal of Psychology, 70, 55-67.
Monro, D. H. (1951). Argument o.f"Laughter. Melbourne University Press.
7
Omwake, L. (1937). A study of sense of humor: its relation to sex, age and personal
characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 21, 688-704.
Potter, S. (1954). The Sense of Humour. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Shaw, F. J. (1960). Laughter: paradigm of growth. Journal of Individual Psychology, 16,
151-157.
Wasson, M. (1926). What is humor? Forum, 76, 425-429.
Zigler, E., Levine, J. and Gould, L. (1966). Cognitive processes in the development of
children's appreciation of humor. Child Development, 31, 507-518.
Introduction
Allport, G. W. (1960). The Individual and His Religion. New York: Macmillan.
Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bergler, E. (1956). Laughter and the Sense of Humor. New York: Grune and Stratton.
Berlyne, D. E. (1969). Laughter, humor and play. In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 3. (2nd Ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Carlson, E. R. (1966). The affective tone of psychology. Journal of General Psychology, 75, 65–78.
Darwin, C. (1890). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: John Murray.
Dewey, J. (1894). The theory of emotion. Psychological Review, 1, 553–569.
Erskine, J. (1928). Humor. Century, 115, 421–426.
Escarpit, R. (1969). Humorous attitude and scientific inventivity. Impact, 19, 253–258.
Flugel, J. C. (1954). Humor and laughter. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook of Social Psychology; Vol. 2. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Friedman, B. (1969). The editor comments. Impact, 19, 223–224.
Ghosh, R. (1939). An experimental study of humour. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 9, 98–99.
Giles, H. , and Oxford, G. S. (1970). Towards a multidimensional theory of laughter causation and its social implications. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 23, 97–105.
Hall, G. S. , and Allin, A. (1897). The psychology of tickling, laughter and the comic. American Journal of Psychology, 9, 1–42.
Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. van. (1972). A comparative approach to the phylogeny of laughter and smiling. In R. A. Hinde (Ed.), Non-verbal Communication. Cambridge University Press.
Jonson, B. (1599). Every Man Out of His Humour. [Extract in P. Lauter (1964) Theories of Comedy. New York: Doubleday].
Keith-Spiegel, K. (1969). Preface to symposium proceedings. Social Aspects of Humor: Recent Research and Theory. Western Psychological Association Meeting, Vancouver.
Lindauer, M. S. (1968). Pleasant and unpleasant emotions in the literature: as compared to the affective tone of psychology. Journal of Psychology, 70, 55–67.
Monro, D. H. (1951). Argument of Laughter. Melbourne University Press.
Omwake, L. (1937). A study of sense of humor: its relation to sex, age and personal characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 21, 688–704.
Potter, S. (1954). The Sense of Humour. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Shaw, F. J. (1960). Laughter: paradigm of growth. Journal of Individual Psychology, 16, 151–157.
Wasson, M. (1926). What is humor? Forum, 76, 425–429.
Zigler, E. , Levine, J. and Gould, L. (1966). Cognitive processes in the development of children’s appreciation of humor. Child Development, 37, 507–518.