Organic soils can be classified as follows:

Classification Organic Content by weight %

Non-organic <2
slightly organic* 2-5
organic* 6 - 10
highly organic* 11 - 25
Peat-woody, fibrous, decomposed, etc. >25
*Insert specific soil type, e.g. slightly organic, Silt Loam, Peaty loam, etc.
AASHTO Classification System:
The AASHTO system is an engineering property classification based upon field performance of
subgrade soils under highway pavements. Subgrade soil materials are classified into seven major
groups designated A-1 through A-7. The soils of each group have similar broad
characteristics in common and physically react alike when subjected to loads. The classification is
based upon the results of tests made in accordance with the following standard methods of the
AASHTO:
1. Amount of material finer than 75m (No. 200) Sieve in Aggregate T-11
2. Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate T-27
3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils T-88
4. Liquid Limit of Soils T-89
5. Plastic Limit of Soils and Plastic Index T-90

GROUP INDEX CALCULATION

1. The group index is calculated from the following formula:
Group index = (F-35) [0.2 + 0.005 (LL-40)] + 0.01 (F-15) (PI-10) in which,
F = percentage passing 75m (No. 200) sieve, expressed as a whole number. This percentage is based
only on the material passing the 75mm (3”) sieve. LL = liquid limit. PI = plasticity index
a. When the calculated group index is negative, report the group index as zero (0).
b. The group index should be reported to the nearest whole number.
2. AASHTO M 145, also, may be used in estimating the group index, by determining the partial group
index due to liquid limit and that due to plasticity index, then obtaining the total of the two partial
group indexes.
3. When calculating the group index of A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, only the PI portion of the formula
shall be used.
4. The following are examples of calculations of the group index:
Example 1: Assume that an A-6 material has 55 percent passing the 75m (No. 200) sieve, liquid limit
of 40, and plasticity index of 25.
Then, Group index = (55-35)[0.2 + 0.005 (40-40)] + 0.01 (55-15) (25-10) = 4.0 + 6.0 = 10
Example 2: Assume that an A-7 material has 80 percent passing the 75m (No. 200) sieve, liquid limit
of 90, and plasticity index of 50.
Then, Group index = (80-35)[0.2 + 0.005(90-40)] + 0.01 (80-15) (50-10) =20.3 + 26.0 = 46.3
Example3: Assume that an A-4 material has 60 percent passing the 75m (No. 200) sieve, liquid limit
of 25, and plasticity index of 1.
Then, Group index = (60-35)[0.2 + 0.005 (25-40)] + 0.02 (60-15) (1-10)= 25 X (0.2 - 0.075) +
0.01(45)(-9) = 3.1 - 4.1 = -1.0 Report as 0.

English-Metric Equivalent Gradation Sieve Sizes

English Metric English Metric
3-inch 75.0 mm #8 ( No.8) 2.38 mm
2-inch 50.0 mm #10 2.00 mm
1-1/2-inch 37.5 mm #16 1.19 mm
1-1/4-inch 31.5 mm #20 850 m
1-inch 25.0 mm #30 600 m
3/4-inch 19.0 mm #40 425 m
5/8-inch 16.0 mm #50 300 m
1/2-inch 12.5 mm #80 180 m
3/8-inch 9.5 mm #100 150 m
#4 ( No. 4) 4.75 mm #200 75 m
Types of subgrades
• The subgrade is the natural material immediately below the pavement.
• The depth of subgrade varies depending on the type of load applications and the
pavement type.
Depth of subgrades.
Application Type of load Pavement type Subgrade depth
Airport Dynamic/extra heavy Flexible 2.0 m
Rigid 1.5 m
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mine haul access Dynamic/very heavy Flexible 1.5 m
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rail Dynamic/very heavy Flexible/rigid 1.25 m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Major roads Dynamic/heavy Flexible 1.0 m
Rigid 0.75 m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Industrial building Dynamic/static/heavy Rigid 0.75 m
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Minor roads Dynamic/medium Flexible 0.75 m
Rigid 0.5 m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Commercial and Static/medium Rigid 0.5 m
Residential buildings
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Walkways/bike paths Static/light Rigid/flexible 0.25 m
_____________________________________________________________
• Contact pressures for flexible foundations on sands and clays approximately
similar
• Contact pressures for rigid foundations:
– On sands, maximum pressure is at middle.
– On clays, maximum pressure is at edge.
• Test location layout should reflect the above considerations.
• Subgrade refers to only direct bearing pressures, while material below the subgrade
should also provide adequate support, although at reduced pressures. This underlying
material can also affect movement considerations.
• Arguably for thick pavement designs/capping layers, the subgrade is now reduced
to the top 0.5 m depth.

Subgrade strength classification

• The subgrade strength is here defined in terms of the soaked CBR.
• The soaked CBR may not be necessarily applicable at a given site.
 Subgrade strength classification.
Soaked CBR Strength classification Comments
<1% Extremely weak Geotextile reinforcement and separation layer
with a working platform typically required.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1%–2% Very weak Geotextile reinforcement and/or separation layer
and/or a working platform typically required.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2%–3% Weak Geotextile separation layer and/or a working
platform typically required.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3%–10% Medium Accept subgrade to Sub – base quality material
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10%–30% Strong Good subgrade to Sub – base quality material
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
>30% Extremely strong Sub – base to base quality material.
______________________________________________________________________
• Extremely weak to weak layers need a capping layer.
• Capping layer also referred to as a working platform.
• Design subgrade CBR values above 20% seldom used irrespective of test results.

13.3 Damage from volumetrically active clays

• Volumetrically active materials are also called shrinkage clays, expansive clays,
reactive clays, and plastic clays.
Damage to roadways resulting from volumetrically active clays.
Mechanism Effect on roadway
Swelling due to wetting Longitudinal cracks on pavements
Shrinkage due to drying Unevenness of riding surface
Culverts can rise out of ground
==============================================
Swelling pressures where Cracking of culverts
movement is prevented High Pressures of retaining walls greater
than at rest earth pressure coefficient
==================================================
Loss of strength due to Localised failure of subgrade
swelling or shrinkage Slope failures of embankments

Subgrade volume change classification

• A subgrade strength criteria may be satisfied, but may not be adequate for volume
change criteria, which must be assessed separately.
• The Weighted Plasticity Index (WPI) can be used for an initial assessment although
the soaked CBR swell provides a better indicator of movement potential for design
purposes.
• An approximate comparative classification is provided in this table.
• Swell is based on sample compacted to MDD (Standard Proctor) at its OMC and
using a 4 day soak.
Subgrade volume change classification for embankments.
Weighted Soaked Subgrade volume Comments
P.I. CBR swell change classification
__________________________________________________________________
<1200 <1% Very Low Generally acceptable for base sub – base
1200–2200 1%–2% Low Applicable for capping layers
2200–3200 2%–3% Moderate Design for some movements
3200–5000 3%–5% High Unsuitable directly below pavements
>5000 >5% Very High Should be removed and replaced or
Stabilised
=============================================================
• Materials with a very low volume change potential tends to be high CBR material
(strong to very strong).
• Clayey materials may still have swell after 4 days. Any WPI >3200 should use a
7 day soaked test.
Minimizing subgrade volume change
• Providing a suitable non volumetrically active capping layer is the most cost
effective way to minimize volume change.
• If sufficient non- reactive materials are unavailable then stabilization of the
subgrade may be required, for the thickness indicated.
• Indicative thickness only. Depends also on climatic environment, which influences
active zone.
Typical improved subgrade to minimize volume change.
Subgrade volume change Thickness of nonreactive overlying layer
classification Fills Cuts
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Very Low Subgrade strength governs pavement design
Low
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Moderate 0.5 m to 1.0 m 0.25 m to 0.5 m
High 1.0 m–2.0 m 0.5 m to 1.0 m
Very High >2.0 m >1.0 m
• Thickness of overlying layer includes pavement in addition to improved subgrade
layer.
• Pavement thickness (based on strength design) may be sufficient for no improved
subgrade layer.
• Remoulded clays (fills) have a higher potential for movement (in its first few years
of wet/dry cycles) than undisturbed clay subgrades (cuts).
• However the potential for rebound must also be checked for deep cuttings.
• Non-Reactive material has WPI <120ntributed
 Mechanical Stabilization:
Rearrangement of the soil grains and densification by compaction is the first approach of mechanical
stabilization…. Soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a soil causes densification
as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains. Soil compaction is a vital part of the
construction process. It is used for support of structural entities such as building foundations,
roadways, walkways, and earth retaining structures. Compaction is the artificial and mechanical
process of decreasing the volume of the soil rapidly by the expulsion of air voids in the soil resulting
in the increase in density.
When stress is applied that causes densification due to water (or other liquid) being displaced from
between the soil grains, then consolidation, not compaction, has occurred. Densification of soil also
occurs naturally due to consolidation of foundation soils by expulsion of pore water due to loads from
the structure. This is a rather long-term process compared to compaction.
The difference between compaction and consolidation is given below:
Compaction:
1. Artificial process caused by mechanical means such as rollers.
2. Decrease in volume and increase in the density of soil occurs by expulsion of air from the voids.
3. Compaction occurs in partially saturated soils.
4. Compaction is completed within minutes-and hence is a short-term process.
5. Compaction is effective in well-graded soils containing gravel and sand, and to a less extent in silts
and clays.
6. Compaction is caused by short-term dynamic load, which are removed after compaction.
Consolidation:
1. Natural process caused by stresses due to foundations or superstructures.
2. Decrease in volume and increase in the density occurs by expulsion of pore water from the voids.
3. Consolidation takes place in fully saturated soils.
4. Consolidation takes several months to years and hence is a long-term process.
5.Consolidation although in principle occurs in all soils but is significant for clayey soils from
engineering point of view due to consequent long-term settlements.
6.Consolidation is caused by long-term static loads, which continue to exist after the completion of
consolidation.

Soil Compaction in Engineering

Soil compaction in engineering is a process that occurs intentionally with the aim of creating a solid
ground for constructing facilities, buildings, roads or car parks on top of it .It is carried out using
mechanisms designed for this purpose. Compaction of soil (Soil Compaction) is rearranging
the granules of soil, only air expelled from the voids soil is done using mechanical means producing
loads of vertical compression and lead to a decrease in the volume of spaces air )soil porosity ( Macro-
pores, or an increase in soil density. Considered clay soils are more prone to soil compaction than
others because of the small size of the molecules and their ability to retain water . Compaction differs
from solidification in that the latter is a gradual expulsion of water from the saturated soil
using constant stress and an associated decrease in volume.
Compaction of the soil has been known since ancient times when man started building ancient dams ,
where the process of compaction of the soil was done by passing large numbers of workers and
animals over the loosened soil multiple times .The bridges of the railway at the beginning to leave
the soil compaction several years under the influence of compaction of weight before placing a layer
of gravel over it . The methods used in the past in compaction of the soil were approximate methods
until Ralph Proctor presented his research in 1933.
 The importance of compaction(stacking) as an engineering application
 In the field of earthen dams, the compaction of the backfill soil in the dam increases its immunity to
water penetration, which reduces the amount of water escaping from it .Also, the shear strength of a
well-compacted fill helps in the stability and resistance to slipping.
 In the field of roads and airports, these engineering works increase their carrying capacity if they are
built on a well-compacted basis.
 In the field of improving soil properties in replacement processes
 Compaction is one of the most important processes needed to stabilize the soil, whether or not
stabilizing material is added.

Practical stacking (compaction)experiences

The practical stacking experiments aim to find a standard position that will be a basis and guide for
conducting the stacking process on site, and there are many practical experiments that depend on the
method and type of stacking, and the stacking is divided into the following types:

 Dynamic stacking: where the stacking is done by hammering a hammer falling from a certain height.
 Kneading compaction: the compaction is accomplished by means of abundant soil penetration and
then some kneading occurs in the soil during compaction.
 Static load compaction: where the soil is compacted in a mold under a static load.
 Compaction by shaking: where the soil is compacted by exposing it to vibration.

The objective of compaction is to achieve maximum possible dry density of the compacted soil. The
water content used for compaction controls the dry density achieved. Figure below shows the variation
of the dry density with water content. For the compaction of a given soil, the sample of soil is
compacted in the laboratory applying standard compaction energy at different water contents. The dry
density of the compacted soil at each of the water content is determined and a graph is plotted with the
water content on the x-axis and the dry density on the y-axis.

Dry Side Wet Side

At low water content, the soil is stiff and the particles offer resistance to come closer, resulting in low
dry density. As the water content is increased, water forms a lubricating film around particles causing
them to be compacted to a closer state of contact resulting in higher dry density. The dry density
increases with increase in the water content until maximum dry density (MDD) is reached. The water
content at which the dry density is maximum after compaction is known as optimum moisture content
(OMC) or optimum water content. At this stage, the soil particles come to the closest possible state of
contact. On increase of water content beyond OMC, the volume of soil does not decrease further by
compaction and water starts to occupy additional space causing an increase in the volume of voids and
the total volume, and resulting in a decrease in dry density.
Compacting theory
The results of the compaction tests show that the dry density increases when you have soil with an
increase in the percentage of moisture under any effort of your blood until the sample reaches the
maximum humidity, then the dry density decreases after the increase in humidity at the maximum.
There are many theories (Lubrication , Double Layer, Effective Stress.. etc. ) to explain this, including
that if the humidity in a soil is low, its grains are covered with a thin layer of water, and the air that
separates these particles acquires atmospheric pressure, as the air is first connected to the atmosphere.
If the particles are combined with each other so that the air in the voids prevents contact with the
atmosphere, then the pressure of the trapped air in the spaces increases by an amount that depends on
the degree of convergence of the particles to each other and the volume of air trapped in the pockets
resulting from the convergence of the particles. The larger the volume of the trapped air, the smaller its
pressure, and vice versa.
When the humidity exceeds the maximum content, the greater part of the compaction effort is
exhausted to overcome the increase in the trapped air pressure, which appears to be greater than the
pressure in the case of the maximum humidity ratio, which results in a decrease in the proportion of
the trapped air. The remaining part of the compaction effort fails even to overcome Small friction
resistance between granules, which results in an increase in the percentage of pores, and thus a
decrease in the dry density. If the humidity exceeds this limit, the trapped air will be greater than the
compaction effort that fails to compress the trapped air or overcome the friction between the
particles .As a result, the result is a decrease in the density of dry soil and an increase in the pores and
the proportion of air spaces. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that the pressure generated in the
air spaces during the compaction process is the one that plays a major role in forming the compaction
curve.

Factors affecting stacking

1. Water content: the dry density increases in increasing the water content until the soil with its water
content reaches the maximum value, and then the dry density decreases with the increase of the
water content.
2. The amount of compaction: for each soil a specific type of compaction is suitable for it. Increasing
the compaction energy increases the maximum dry density value and reduces the optimum water
content. In general, increasing the compaction effort or compaction energy causes the curve to
move northward upward.
3. Soil Type: The maximum dry density depends on the type of soil .Soils with coarse graded grains
have a greater dry density than those with fine grains .Clay has the lowest maximum density.
4. Stacking method: affects the values of the stacking. The method of stacking, whether parameter or
ring, includes the weight of the hammers, the method of stacking (dynamic or static, kneading or
crushing), the time of compaction, and the area exposed to tamping.
5. Additives: There are some additives that can be used to improve stacking properties.
6. Soil content of organic matter.
The effect of compaction on soil properties
1. Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil.
2. The bearing capacity of the soil increases.
3. It reduces the ability of the soil to compact and fall.
4. Compaction reduces the permeability of the soil, and thus its waterproofing ability.

Compactive effort or compaction energy also controls the effectiveness of compaction. Higher the
compactive effort, higher will be the dry density achieved for the same soil. The soil type - that is,
grain-size distributions, shape of the soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of
clay minerals, present - has a great influence on the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture
content. It also has a great influence on how the materials should be compacted in given situations.
The type of soil and its gradation and plasticity characteristics also influence the degree of compaction
achieved. Coarse-grained soils can be compacted to a higher dry density than fine-grained soils.
Cohesionless soils can be similarly compacted to a higher dry density than cohesive soils. A well-
graded soil is compacted more effectively as compared to a poorly graded soil. Addition of fines to a
coarse-grained soil, by an amount just required to fill the existing voids, greatly enhances the dry
density. For the compaction of soil in the field, water equal to OMC, or less (dry of OMC) or more
(wet of OMC) water is used depending on the objective of compaction and type of construction. Same
compaction energy per unit volume of soil, as used in the laboratory compaction test, is used to
compact the soil in the field. Compaction is accomplished by use of heavy equipment (Normally,
compaction is the result of heavy machinery compressing the soil). In sands and gravels, the
equipment usually vibrates, to cause re-orientation of the soil particles into a denser configuration.
In silts and clays, a sheepsfoot roller is frequently used, to create small zones of intense shearing,
which drives air out of the soil.
Before soils can be compacted in the field, some laboratory tests are required to determine their
engineering properties. Among various properties, the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content are vital and specify the required density to be compacted in the field. To ensure
adequate soil compaction is achieved, project specifications will indicate the required soil density or
degree of compaction that must be achieved. Determination of adequate compaction is done by
determining the in-situ density of the soil and comparing it to the maximum density determined by a
laboratory test.
Proctor's Test
Standard proctor test
A sample of the soil is dried after it is crushed so that the air drying is within the limits of 5 as the size
of a passer-by from a sieve that has a opening of 20 mm, then an amount of water is added according
to the type of experiment, so that it gives a moisture content between 4% to 6% for sandy and slippery
soil with a value ranging from 8% to 10% For clay soil and silt, then the sample is placed on three
layers in the mold formed in a hollow cylinder of 10.2 cm in diameter and an internal height of 1.6 cm
(gives a volume of about 944 cm 3). This cylinder also has an upper extension of 6 cm in height and
crushes each of the three layers by pounding 25 precision with a hammer weighing about 2.5 It has a
diameter of 5.1 cm and falls from a height of 30.5 cm, then the upper extension of the cylinder is
removed and the soil is settled inside, then the cylindrical mold is weighed with the soil it contains to
calculate the wet density of the sample and its water content.
Modified proctor test
The American Federation of Government Road Personnel has developed a development in the
standard Proctor experiment that includes placing the sample on 5 layers, and the hammer weighing
4.5 kg drops from a height of 45 cm. This indicates that the higher the compaction effort, the greater
the dry density of the same soil increases and the maximum moisture content decreases.
 Test methods in laboratory
Soil compactors are used to perform test methods which cover laboratory compaction methods used to
determine the relationship between molding water content and dry unit weight of soils. Soil placed as
engineering fill is compacted to a dense state to obtain satisfactory engineering properties such as,
shear strength, compressibility, or permeability. In addition, foundation soils are often compacted to
improve their engineering properties. Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for determining
the percent compaction and molding water content needed to achieve the required engineering
properties, and for controlling construction to assure that the required compaction and water contents
are achieved. Test methods such as ASTM D698, ASTM D1557, AASHTO T99, AASHTO T180,
AASHTO T193, BS 1377:4 provide soil compaction testing procedures.
Compaction methods
There are several means of achieving compaction of a material. Some are more appropriate for soil
compaction than others, while some techniques are only suitable for particular soils or soils in
particular conditions. Some are more suited to compaction of non-soil materials such as asphalt.
Generally, those that can apply significant amounts of shear as well as compressive stress, are most
effective. The available techniques can be classified as:
1. Static - a large stress is slowly applied to the soil and then released.
2. Impact - the stress is applied by dropping a large mass onto the surface of the soil.
3. Vibrating - a stress is applied repeatedly and rapidly via a mechanically driven plate or hammer.
Often combined with rolling compaction (see below).
4. Gyrating - a static stress is applied and maintained in one direction while the soil is a subjected to
a gyratory motion about the axis of static loading. Limited to laboratory applications.
5. Rolling - a heavy cylinder is rolled over the surface of the soil. Commonly used on sports
pitches. Roller-compactors are often fitted with vibratory devices to enhance their effectiveness.
6. Kneading - shear is applied by alternating movement in adjacent positions. An example, combined
with rolling compaction, is the 'sheepsfoot' roller used in compaction at landfills.

The following are some of the objectives of compaction:

 Increase the shear strength of soil.
 Decrease the undesirable settlement of structures.
 Control undesirable volume change.
 Decrease permeability of soil.
 Increase the bearing capacity of foundations.
 Increase the stability of slopes.

Effect of Compaction on Engineering Properties of the Soil:

1. Soil Structure:
Soil compacted at the water content less than OMC (dry of optimum) will have flocculent structure
with edge-to-face particle arrangement, irrespective of method of compaction. The structure of soils
compacted at water content greater than OMC (wet of optimum) depends on the magnitude of the
shear strain. Soils compacted wet of optimum, which undergo relatively small shear strain during
compaction, will have flocculent structure. Soils compacted wet of optimum, which undergo large
shear strains during compaction, usually have a dispersed structure with face-to-face (oriented) particle
arrangement.
The degree of orientation of soil particles increases gradually with increase in water content and the
soil still possesses a flocculated structure up to the OMC. The orientation of particles increases more
rapidly with increase in water content for soils compacted wet of optimum.
2. Shear Strength:
Soils compacted dry of optimum have more shear strength than those compacted wet of optimum. The
cohesion and friction angle are both higher for soils compacted dry of optimum. Thus, the Mohr-
Coulomb strength envelope is steeper for soils compacted dry of optimum and also lies above that of
soils compacted wet of optimum. However, the difference in shear strength of soils compacted dry and
wet of optimum decreases when the compacted soils are fully saturated. It may be noted that soils with
a flocculent structure possess more shear strength. This is because the attractive forces are
predominant in flocculent structure and also because the soil offers higher resistance to deformation
due to particle interference in edge-to-face particle arrangement existing in flocculent structure.
On the other hand, repulsive forces are predominant in soils with dispersive structure resulting in
lower shear strength. The particle interference and hence the resistance to deformation is also less in
dispersed structure, which has relatively oriented particle arrangement. Saturation of compacted soils
increases the repulsive forces, causing a decrease in shear strength.
3. Pore Water Pressure:
As the water content is less for soils compacted dry of optimum, there is zero or negligible pore water
pressure (due to discrete and local pockets of saturation). Soils compacted wet of optimum show
higher pore water pressure, which reduces the effective stress and frictional component of shear
strength.
4. Stress-Strain Relationship:
Soils compacted dry of optimum possess a steeper stress-strain relationship compared to those
compacted wet of optimum. Consequently, the deformation and settlement are less for soils compacted
dry of optimum, and show relatively sudden and brittle failure. Soils compacted wet of optimum show
large strains and settlements and the failure is gradual and plastic.
5. Compressibility:
Soils compacted dry of optimum are less compressible due to their flocculent structure and greater
particle interference and resistance to deformation. Soils compacted wet of optimum are initially less
compressible at low stresses due to their dispersed structure and predominance of repulsive forces.
However, when the stresses are increased further to overcome the repulsive forces, such soils show
high compressibility resulting in large deformation. The face-to-face particle arrangement in dispersed
structure of such soils also offers less resistance to deformation and increases the compression.
6. Shrinkage:
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of soil due to the evaporation of water. Soil compacted dry of
optimum undergoes less shrinkage due to random particle arrangement and particle interference that
offers more resistance to deformation. Shrinkage is more for soils compacted wet of optimum due to
dispersed structure and lesser particle interference and resistance to deformation.

7. Swelling:
A clay soil compacted dry of optimum has more water deficiency and large void ratio and hence
imbibes more water resulting in larger swelling, compared to the soil at the same dry density
compacted wet of optimum.
8. Permeability:
Soils compacted at low water content possess low dry density and large void ratio and hence are more
permeable. With increase in water content dry of optimum, the dry density increases and void ratio
decreases causing a decrease in permeability. Thus, permeability of soils compacted dry of optimum
decreases with increase in water content. Permeability is minimum at or slightly above the OMC. With
further increase in water content, permeability slightly increases due to decrease in dry density.
However, permeability of soils compacted wet of optimum is always much less than those compacted
dry of optimum.
Factors Affecting Compaction:
The MDD achievable by the compaction depends on the following factors:
1. Effect of Water Content:
Increase of water content used for compaction increases the dry density initially until the dry density
reaches its maximum. After reaching MDD, further increase in the water content decreases the dry
density.
2. Type of Soil:
The type of soil used for compaction primarily decides MDD achievable by the compaction. Figure
below shows the compaction curves for different types of soil. Coarse-grained soils can be compacted
to a higher dry density than fine-grained soils. Cohesive soils usually have high air voids content. The
void ratio of cohesive soils increases with increase in plasticity index. Thus, coarse-grained soils have
higher MDD and lower OMC than fine-grained soil. The MDD decreases and OMC increases for low
plastic silt, high plastic silt, and high plastic clay.
3. Gradation of Soil:
For a given soil, a well-graded soil has higher MDD and lower OMC then a poorly graded soil. This is
because a well-graded soil contains particles of all sizes and the finer size particles fill the void space
between the coarser particles resulting in lower air voids and higher MDD.
Addition of small amount of fines to a coarse-grained soil increases its MDD for the same reason.
However, when the amount of fines added is more than that needed to fill the voids of coarse-grained
soil, the MDD again decreases.

4. Compaction Energy
The compaction energy applied to the soil during compaction has a significant influence on the MDD.
In general, the higher the compaction energy or compactive effort, the higher will be the MDD and
lower will be the OMC. This is the reason why the subgrades of airfield pavements are compacted
using heavy compaction. Thus, the compaction curve of a modified Proctor test, which uses more
compactive effort on the soil, is above and to the left of that of standard Proctor test or IS light
compaction test as shown below.
The increase in dry density due to the increase in compactive effort is more at water content less than
OMC (dry of optimum) than that on the wet of optimum.
It may be noted that the increase in compactive effort does not go on increasing the MDD indefinitely.
When compactive effort is increased in equal increment, the increment in MDD becomes smaller and
smaller with each increment of compactive effort. Finally, a stage is reached where further increase of
compactive effort does not bring any significant increase in MDD.
Care should be taken to see that the compactive effort does not cause a stress on the soil particles
beyond their crushing strength, in which case the higher compactive effort crushes the individual
particles, causing a reduction in MDD in some soils.

Differences Between Standard (T 99) and Modified (T 180) Moisture- Density Tests
Equipment/Procedures Standard Modified
Rammers Mass 2.495 kg 4.536 kg
(Manual and Mechanical) (5.5 lb) (10.0 lb)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drop of Rammer to Soil Surface 305 mm 475 mm
(12.0 in) (18.0 in)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Layers Placed (Filling Mold) 3 5
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Moisture-Density Methods and Associated Mold Sizes

Method A Method B Method C Method D

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Mold Size 101.6 mm (4 in) 152.4 mm (6 in) 101.6 mm (4 in) 152.4 mm (6 in)
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Max. Material Size Passing 4.75 mm Passing 4.75 mm Passing 19.0 mm Passing 19.0 mm
(No. 4) (No. 4) (3/4 in) (3/4 in)
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Blow Per Layer 25 56 25 56
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Standard (T 99) 3 Layers using 2.495 kg (5.5 lb) rammer, 305 mm (12 in) drop
Modified (T 180) 5 Layers using 4.536 kg (10 lb) rammer, 457 mm (18 in) drop
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EXAMPLE

The following results were obtained from a standard compaction test on a soil:
Mass (g) : 2010 2092 2114 2100 2055
Water content (%): 12.8 14.5 15.6 16.8 19.2
The value of Gs= 2.67 The volume of the mold is 1000 cm3.
a) Plot the dry density-water content curve b) Give the compaction characteristics
of the soil c) Plot also the curves of zero, 5% and 10% air content lines. d) Give
the value of air content at max. dry density.

Soil Compaction
Soil compaction is one of the most critical components in the construction of roads, airfields,
embankments, and foundations. The durability and stability of a structure are related to the
achievement of proper soil compaction. Structural failure of roads and airfields and the
damage caused by foundation settlement can often be traced back to the failure to achieve
proper soil compaction. Compaction is the process of mechanically densifying a soil.
Densification is accomplished by pressing the soil particles together into a close state of
contact with air being expelled from the soil mass in the process. Compaction, as used here,
implies dynamic compaction or densification by the application of moving loads to the soil
mass. This is in contrast to the consolidation process for fine-grained soil in which the soil is
gradually made more dense as a result of the application of a static load. With relation to
compaction, the density of a soil is normally expressed in terms of dry density or dry unit
weight. The common unit of measurement is pcf (Kg/m3). Occasionally, the wet density or wet
unit weight is used.

Soil Properties Affected by Compaction ADVANTAGES OF SOIL COMPACTION

Certain advantages resulting from soil compaction have made it a standard procedure in the
construction of earth structures, such as embankments, subgrades, and bases for road and
airfield pavements. No other construction process that is applied to natural soils produces so
marked a change in their physical properties at so low a cost as compaction (when it is
properly controlled to produce the desired results). Principal soil properties affected by
compaction include: Settlement, Shearing resistance, Movement of water, and Volume change.
Compaction does not improve the desirable properties of all soils to the same degree. In
certain cases, the engineer must carefully consider the effect of compaction on these
properties. For example, with certain soils the desire to hold volume change to a minimum
may be more important than just an increase in shearing resistance.

SETTLEMENT
A principal advantage resulting from the compaction of soils used in embankments is that it
reduces settlement that might be caused by consolidation of the soil within the body of the
embankment. This is true because compaction and consolidation both bring about a closer
arrangement of soil particles. Densification by compaction prevents later consolidation and
settlement of an embankment. This does not necessarily mean that the embankment will be
free of settlement; its weight may cause consolidation of compressible soil layers that form the
embankment foundation.
SHEARING RESISTANCE
Increasing density by compaction usually increases shearing resistance. This effect is highly
desirable in that it may allow the use of a thinner pavement structure over a compacted
subgrade or the use of steeper side slopes for an embankment than would otherwise be
possible. For the same density, the highest strengths are frequently obtained by using greater
compactive efforts with water contents somewhat below OMC. Large-scale experiments have
indicated that the unconfined compressive strength of a clayey sand could be doubled by
compaction, within the range of practical field compaction procedures.

MOVEMENT OF WATER
When soil particles are forced together by compaction, both the number of voids contained in
the soil mass and the size of the individual void spaces are reduced. This change in voids has
an obvious effect on the movement of water through the soil. One effect is to reduce the
permeability, thus reducing the seepage of water. Similarly, if the compaction is accomplished
with proper moisture control, the movement of capillary water is minimized. This reduces the
tendency for the soil to take up water and suffer later reductions in shearing resistance.

VOLUME CHANGE
Change in volume (shrinkage and swelling) is an important soil property, which is critical
when soils are used as subgrades for roads and airfield pavements. Volume change is generally
not a great concern in relation to compaction except for clay soils where compaction does have
a marked influence. For these soils, the greater the density, the greater the potential volume
change due to swelling, unless the soil is restrained. An expansive clay soil should be
compacted at a moisture content at which swelling will not exceed 3 percent. Although the
conditions corresponding to a minimum swell and minimum shrinkage may not be exactly the
same, soils in which volume change is a factor generally may be compacted so that these
effects are minimized. The effect of swelling on bearing capacity is important and is evaluated
by the standard method used by the US Army Corps of Engineers in preparing samples for the
CBR test.

Design Considerations MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS

Nearly all soils exhibit a similar relationship between moisture content and dry density when
subjected to a given compactive effort (see Figure). For each soil, a maximum dry density
develops at an OMC for the compactive effort used. The OMC at which maximum density is
obtained is the moisture content at which the soil becomes sufficiently workable under a given
compactive effort to cause the soil particles to become so closely packed that most of the air is
expelled. For most soils (except cohesionless sands), when the moisture content is less than
optimum, the soil is more difficult to compact. Beyond optimum, most soils are not as dense
under a given effort because the water interferes with the close packing of the soil particles.
Beyond optimum and for the stated conditions, the air content of most soils remains essentially
the same, even though the moisture content is increased. The moisture-density relationship is
indicative of the workability of the soil over a range of water contents for the compactive
effort used. The relationship is valid for laboratory and field compaction. The maximum dry
density is frequently visualized as corresponding to 100 percent compaction for the given soil
under the given compactive effort. The curve on Figure is valid only for one compactive
effort, as established in the laboratory.
 The zero air-voids curve represents theoretical maximum densities for given
water contents. These densities are practically unattainable because removing all the air
contained in the voids of the soil by compaction alone is not possible. Typically, at moisture
contents beyond optimum for any compactive effort, the actual compaction curve closely
parallels the zero air-voids curve.
 Field Compaction Equipment
Field compaction equipment is classified and their applicability is discussed in relation to soil types.
The practical aspects of application are noted. The choice of compaction plant depended on:
1. Output ( a. type of soil, b. width and thickness of compacted layer, c. equipment speed, and
d. number of passes to achieve the required dry density).
2. Operating Cost(a.operators costs, b. cost of fuel, and c. capitol of hiring charges for the equipment).
3. Circumstances which limit the type of equipment by their sizes and locations.

The sheepsfoot roller will compact fine-grained materials, plastic materials and materials that will
breakdown under the roller feet, but will not compact cohesionless granular materials. Heavy
pneumatic (rubber tired) roller are designed so that the weight can be varied to apply the desired
compactive effort. These rollers compact from the top down, and are least effective with fine grain
plastic soils of high compressibility. The small pneumatic roller (wobble-wheel roller) will not
compact a layer in excess of about 2 inches thickness and is used for finishing all types of materials.
The thickness of lifts should be limited to 4-6 inches.
For the steel-wheeled rollers, which are generally used for cohesionless subgrade base, coarse and
wearing surfaces, the thickness of lift should be limited to 4 inches due to low unit pressures. Impact
or vibratory compressed air or gasoline type hand tampers are effective in compacting soils around
culverts, bridges, abutments and small restricted areas. Vibratory rollers are available in a variety of
types and sizes. Some are small tractor-drawn versions and others are self-propelled. The use of
vibratory compactors yield best results in clean cohesionless sands and gravel, rock spalls and various
zones of rock fill. The vibratory roller may be operated through a range of frequencies with a constant
dynamic force. The vibratory frequencies generally range between 1500 and 2200 blows or impacts
per minute.
In-situ dry density
The control of field compaction : Relative Compaction % = ---------------------------x 100
Lab. max. dry density

Generally, there are several factors to consider before compacting the soil on a project:

1. TYPE OF SOIL
The type of soil has a great influence on its compaction characteristics. Normally, heavy clays, clays
and silts offer higher resistance to compaction, whereas sandy soils and coarse grained or gravelly
soils are amenable for easy compaction. Well graded granular soils obtain a high degree of dry density
and usually compact easier. The coarse grained soils yield higher densities in comparison to clays. A
well graded soil can be compacted to higher density. Cohesive soils contain high quantity of air voids.
This soil group requires more water to minimize air voids and therefore the optimum moisture content
is high. Adding water makes this soil plastic and requires more compaction effort.

2. TYPE OF COMPACTOR
Deciding on the type of Type of Compactor Type of Soil
compaction equipment is mainly
Smooth Wheel Roller Crushed rock, gravelly sand
dependent upon the type of soil
that needs to be compacted. The Pneumatic Tired Roller Sands, gravel, silty soil, clayey soils
following table can be used as a Sheepsfoot/Padfoot Roller Silty soil, clayey soil
reference to decide the type of Rammer Soils in confined spaces
equipment for different types of
soils.
3. LAYER THICKNESS / THICKNESS OF LIFT
The degree of compaction is inversely proportional to the layer thickness. For a given compactive
energy, a thicker layer will be less compacted as compared to a thin layer. The reason is, for thicker
soils, the energy input per unit weight is less. Therefore, it is very important to decide the right
thickness of each layer to achieve the desired density. Thickness of layer is dependent upon several
other factors such as: a. Type of soil, b. Type and weight of roller, and c. Contact pressure of drum.
Generally a 200 to 300 mm layer thickness is used in the field to achieve homogeneous compaction.

4. NUMBER OF ROLLER PASSES

It is obvious that density increases as the number of roller passes increase. However there are two
important things to remember:
 Firstly, after a certain number of roller passes, there is no further increase in density.
 An increase of roller passes means more cost on the project.
It is crucial to determine the number of roller passes for any type of soil at optimum moisture content.
Field compaction tests are carried out to economize compaction aspect of earthwork, while achieving
desired level of density.

5. MOISTURE CONTENT
Proper control of moisture content in soil is necessary for achieving desired density. Maximum density
with minimum compacting effort can be achieved by compaction of soil near its optimum moisture
content. If the soil is less than its optimum moisture content, a calculated amount of water should be
added to the soil with a sprinkler attached to a water tanker and mixed with soil by a motor grader for
uniform moisture content.
If the soil has too much moisture, a suggested requirement is drying by aeration to reach up to the
optimum moisture content.

6. CONTACT PRESSURE
Contact pressure depends on the weight of the roller wheel and the contact area. In the case of
pneumatic rollers, the tire inflation pressure also determines the contact pressure in addition to wheel
load. A higher contact pressure increases the dry density and lowers the optimum moisture content.

Field Measurements of Density

1. Core Cutter Method
2. Sand Replacement Method
3. Rubber Balloon Method
4. Gamma Radiation Method