-:

Expansive Soil Test Site Near Newcastle

S. G. Fityus1; D. W. Smith2; and M. A. Allman3

Abstract: A field site was established in 1993 near Newcasile, Australia, as part of a long-terrn study into expansive soil bchavior. The
primary objectives in establishiog the site were to collect high quality data with which to check curren! design methods for lightly loaded
building foundations and to develop improved understandiog of the physical processes that drive unsaturatcd expansive soil bchavior. The
site was instrumeoted to allow measurcment of soil water content, soil moisture suction, and ground movement to depths of 3 m. The sito
was provided with two ground covers to simulate moisture boundary conditions due to the presence of typical structures. This papcr
presents sorne of the more importan! findings from the 7 years of data acquired so far. These ioclude a qualitative assessment of the overall
site behavior, and quantitative ob crvations of the range of total suction and water contcnt changes with deplh, the depth to which moisturc
cbanges occur, and the cootributions lo surface movement from ground movemenl al various depths. The shapc of a mound developcd
beneath a flexible cover oo an initially dry site is examined, and the effects of a large tree on moisturc changes are reponed.

001: 10.1061/(A CE)l090-0241(2004)130:7(686)

CE Database subject headlngs: Expansivo soils; oil tests; Australia; Heave; oíl water.

lntroduction
Shrinking and swelliog of unsaturated expansivo clays in re-
sponse lo water content change is a worldwide phenomenon. 11 is
one of the most commoo geotechnical causes of damage to resi-
dential buildings (Jones and Holtz 1973; Krohn and Slossen 1980;
Freernan et al. 1991). In Australia, expansive soils are widely
distributed. Richards et al. (1983) estimated that 20% of the sur-
facc soils of Australia can be classified as expansivo. In Iact, six
out of eight of Australia's largest cities are significanlly affected
by clay foundatioo soils, which realize a significan! proportioo of
their expansivo potential.
Research into expansive soil behavior has been carried out in
Australia sincc the late 1950s, most ootably by the Common-
wcalth cientific and Industrial Research Organization (C !RO)
Division of Soils (see, e.g., Aitchison 1965; Walsh 1978; Holland
and Richards 1982) and the Universities of Adelaide and outh
Australia (Mitchell 1984; Cameroo 1989). Similar rescarch initia-
tives have also been undertaken around the world, with many of
the outcomes of these studies contained in a series of expansive
and unsaturated soils conference proceediogs since 1965. lnterest-
iogly, there is a scarcity of research findiogs on expan ive clay
soils in the international jouroal literature. The most accessible
data oo expansive soils continuo to be lirnited lo national founda-
tion practice standards and landmark texts such as Chen (1988),
1Senior Lecturer, Dcpt. of Civil, Surveying and Environrnental
Engineering, The Univ. of Newcastle, Callagban, NSW 2308. Australia.
2Assoeiate Professor, Dept. of Civil, Surveying and Environmental
elson and Miller (1992), and Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993).
The outcorne of much of the Australian rcsearch was an Aus-
tralian standard for the design of rcsidential slabs and footings
(A 2870 1996). The standard was first publishcd in 1986 and has
fouod wide use in ali states for routine foundation design. Al-
though it covers foundation design for any geotcchnical condi-
tions, it places particular emphasis on design for expansivo soil
si tes.
The rigorous engineering design of foundations on cxpansive
soil sites is a complex problem that requires a good understanding
of expansive unsaturated soil bchavior, structural response, soil
structure interaction, and a largc quantity of site-spccific data.
Many aspects of the above are poorly handled in currcnt practico,
and a general design approach that involves fully coupled unsat-
urated moisture Ilow, soil volume changc, and soil-structurc in-
teraction has proved difficult to achievc. The primary objectivc of
the Maryland field study is to collect high qualiry field data that
can be used to check currcnt design methods for building foun-
dations. A secondary aim is to develop improvcd undcrstanding of
Lhe physical processes that drivc reactive soil behavior. With this
information it is hopcd that more rcliable, sophisticatcd models of
expansivo soil behavior can be developcd.
A complete prcsentation of the outcomes of thc Maryland ex-
pansive soils project is beyond thc scope of this papcr. Cense-
quenlly, thc aims of this papcr are limited to the following: a brief
description the Maryland expansive soils field site, and rcsults
and discussion for sorne of aspccts of expansivo foundation be-
havior that are important in expansivo soil foundation practico.

Engineering, The Univ. of Newcaslle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia.

3Director, RCA Asutralia, 92 Hill St., Carrington NSW, 2294
Australia.
Note. Discussion open until Decernber 1, 20().i. Separate discussions
must be submilled for individual papers, To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managiog
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos­
sible publication on Marcb 9, 2001; approved on May 6, 2002. This paper
is part of the Joumal oJGeotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineer-
ing, Vol. 130, No. 7, July 1, 2004. \!:>ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/2()0.t{]-
686-695/$18.00.
Maryland Expansiva Soils Field Site
Background
The ímpetus for reactive soil research in the Newcastle región is
derived from a number of factors, including the coexistence of
expansive soil and mine subsidence ground movement in an arca
prone to infrcquent, mild seismic activity (Fityus and Welboumc
1996); an evolving residential construction practice; an ab cnce

686 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGJNEERING e ASCE / JULY 2004

 • surfacc movcment probc
o sub-surfaee movemcnt probc
+ dcep datum point
e gypsum block stack
� thermoc:ouplc stac'k
• fil ter paper suction probc
10.6m X 10.6m
flexible impervious c:ovcr

�
·�
500mm

¿2SMPa concrete
0.2mm polythcne ahecting
/{31:IYcg)

t
/ SOmm sand laycr

300mm4-
• ncutron probc tubc N "\ 300m;:;u:: 100mm 300mm)J- lOm X lOm
stiffcncd raft stab

\
SOOmm ct>S, 200mm e/e mesh 3x cl>12, 410MPa stecl

boundary
fcnce

. • •• •• •DI
•
. . TDR
duialarca
•
•
.
. . • . ººº••
• • • • • • • ••

�· .. .
SL61 •• • • • ••
08
O
ººº.
D lt

•
)( 0 X O ,e)( )C
••• • o o • • • ••
,C X 1CIOt
• •
o
• NP4 � º.r.e•'°:ÑP11 • • • ••
••• • • • ••
wcather ••
station •

mctrcs
o 10

Fig. 1. General plan of primary test sue

of data to assess design recommendations; predicted regional
population growth that could lead to development of extensive
arcas of potentially expansivo soil; and a growing expcctation in
thc community that houscs coostructed using modero tcchnology
and modero materials should suffer liule or no clamage from any
cause.
The Maryland site was sclected for this study bccause it is
typical of maoy new and existing residential housing estates on
the eastern seaboard of Australia, where seasonally induced
ground surface movemcot of between 40 and 70 mm causes sig-
nificant distrcss in oldcr and poorly cngioeered resideotial struc-
turcs. The Maryland site lies within a corridor of open space
which has been carmarked for extcnsive residential dcvelopmcnt
betwecn 1990 and 2010.
5/te Condltions
The Maryland site lies approximately 160 km north of Sydney, 10
km west of the city of ewcastle, and sorne 800 m northwest of
the suburb of Maryland. The region has a tempcrate, near coastal
climate with an annual rainfall typically between 1,000 and 1,200
mm pcr year. A detailed plan of the site is shown in Fig. 1. The
site is approximately 80 mX25 m and is covered with a low
running kikuyu grass. ll has a Jarge eucalyptus tree (a forest red
gum) at the western end. The site has a uniform surface gradient
of 25° that dips south by southcast toward an castem extremity of
an alluvium fillcd Oood plain sorne 300 m away. Drainage is
predominantly by surface runoff.
The expansive soils al the field site consist of residual silty
clays of high plasticity. The sitc is assessed to be underlain by the
Dempsey Formation within the Permian Tomago Coa! Measures,
which is known lo consist mainly of shales, mudstones, and silt-
stones with subordinate sandstones, thin coa! searns, and tuf-
faceous clays (Engel 1966). A rock typc refcrrcd to as laminitc,
consisting of thinly laminatcd fine sandstone and dark siltstone
laycrs, is characteristic of the Dempsey Forrnation and is identi-
ficd at depth throughout the site (Fityus 1999).
The gcotcchnical profilc for the soil found at the sitc is shown
in Fig, 2. The average soil profilc can be described as 250 mm of
silty clay topsoil underlain by high plasticity clay to a depth of
approximately 12 m, then mcdium plastic silty clay with sorne
relict rock structure to approximately 1.8 m, where rock structurc
becomes consistent, with highly to extremely weathered siltstone
encountercd below 25 m. Soil typc changes are gradational, with
no distinct !ayer bouodarics evident below the base of the topsoil.
fig. 2 also shows profilcs of Allerberg limits, partido sizc, linear
shrinkagc, cation exchangc capacity (CEC) and shrink-swell
index (I ss: see the Appendix). Fig. 3 shows the variation in un-
corrected swelling pressurc with respcct to the initial water con-
tent. The soil activity, defined as the plasticity index divided by
the percentage of clay, is approximately 0.9. The site classifica-
lion for expansivity (based on predicted open ground movement
for the site following AS 2870.1 (1996) is H (i.e., "highly reac-
tive" with predicted movemcnt in the range of 40-70 mm). This
is consistent with data obtained in adjacent áreas of the suburb of
Maryland during gcotcchnical investigations for housing (Taylor
1993) wherc, of 14 sites testcd, 3 werc classified as M ("moder-
ately reactive" with movemcnt of 20-40 mm), 10 as H and onc
as E ("extremely reactive" with movement cxceedíng 70 mm).
5/te Arrangement
The site arrangement was dcsigned lo provide data on scveral
important aspects of expansive soils siles including the following:

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING C ASCE I JULY 2004 / 687

 SoU Profilc Dcscription Attcrbcrg limits (%) dry dcnsity particle size linear CEC shrink-swell
(kN/ml) distribution (%) shrinkage (%) (Mcq/lOOg) index lss (%)
o. oarK brown

-
(CL) sandy silty CLAY, (topsoíl)
.
K

;. •.. �.
X
I>
o.s
(OI) CLAY, high plasticity, pale orangc-brown) X + - ...... 1
lx><
X l

k
: + • I t',
X X X
bccoming
.e nñottfed "¡iaie browñigrey with SOIDC ºred-orañge.
0 + • kl)
+
•
) i><
staining and ironstone gravels )( 1)
.
.....'
.s
(CL-CH) silty Cl.AY, medium to high
plasticity, palc grcy-brown with sorne iron
X .¡ • l ��
staining (sorne residual rock structurc) •
- 1,:)

k
SlLTY CI.AY/ EXTREMELY WEATHERED
�( SILTSTONE brown grey, laminatcd
•
.
2.5 HJGHLY WEATiiERED SILTSTONE
Jight and dark grey laminations

3.0

3.5
d X
+
plastic limit
liquid limit

4
1 1
O 2S SO 15 14 15 16 O 20 40 60 80 100 O 5 JO IS 20 O 5 10 15 20 2S O J 2 3 4 S 6 7

Fig. 2. Profile of Maryland expansive soil

• The magnitude and variability of changes in water content,
changes in suction and ground movement, at various depths, in
open arcas on a site;
• The effects of trees on soil water content changes and ground
movement;
• The effects that {impervious) raft slabs have on moisture Ilow
and the subsequent effects on ground movement and the de-
velopmenl of mound sbapes in two and three dimensions;
• The interaction between reinforced concrete stiffened raft
slabs and expansive clay foundation soils, and the reduction in
ground movement whicb results from slab stiffness and struc-
tural load; and
• An assessment of the role of climate in driving ali of the above
over a number of seasons.
�600
a 500
l:!
To this end a field site was planned at which instrumentation
could be installed and monitored for a long period. The field site
was designed with reference to similar field studies which have
been conducted in the past, both in Australia {e.g., Holland and
Lawrence 1980; Coffey and Partners 1985; Cameron 1989) and
overseas (e.g., de Bruijn 1965; Freeman et al. 1991; Pellissier
1992; Wray 1992). Features of the site are shown in Fig. l and
they include
• Open ground arcas where water content and suction changes
and surface and subsurface movement could be monitored;
• An area adjacent to a large tree, where water content changes
and surface and subsurface movement could be monitored;
• A "flexible" impervious cover to simulate a perfectly flexible
stiffened raft slab with edge beams, instrumented to allow sub-
surface water contcnt changes and surface and subsurface
movcment to be monitored; and
• A reinforced concrete stiffencd raft slab with two parallel
edges loaded to simulate a transmitted roof load, instrumented
to allow subsurfacc water content changes and surface and

�
:::,

400
í\ subsurface movement to be monitored.
p.
CA)

:E 300
\ \ Thc 10.6 mX 10.6 m flexible cover was comprised of a soil
filled HDPE plastic envelope (three layers), constructed in situ
-¡¡
\ \ with the same spatial cbaracteristics as a nonnally stiffened raft
� 200 slab (i.e., with finite thickness and down-tumed edgc beams). Tbe
13
� 100
ir--._ r-, surface was covcred with a 50-mm layer of silica sand to protcct
the plastic sheeting against UV degradation and weathering.
8 � tx Tbc 10 mXlO m reinforccd concrete slab was 100-mm thick,
g o with integrally cast edge and center stiffening beams 300-mm
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 wide and 500-mm decp. Thc slab was reinforced with 8-mm
initial water content (%) weldcd mesh (200-mm centers in both directions) and thc stiffen-
ing beams were cach reinforced with three deformed bars of
Flg. 3. Uncorrected swell prcssurc for Maryland clay
12-mm diameter.

688 I JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING e ASCE ! JULY 2004

/ Jnstrumentatlon
The instrumentation installed al the site is shown in Fig. l and it
includes
• 154 surface movement indicators: 25-mm diam galvanized
steel rods grouted into 100-mm diamX 100 mm deep seats,
positioned in open ground and adjacent to, and upon, covers.
One set of surface and subsurface markers was positioned so
as to be clear of any inOucnce from the covers or the tree. This
sel was tcrmed the "control."
• 28 subsurface movement indicators: 25-mm diam galvanized
steel rods, grouted into the base of 100-mm diam augured
boles. Thc rods are protected by PVC linings and caps.
• 25/50-mm diam aluminum access tubes to depths of L.5 or 3
m, installed in 50-mm diam augurcd holes. These accommo-
date a CPN hydroprobc (neutron probe), for in situ measure-
ment of soil water content.
• Fivc gypsurn blocks stacks for thc mcasurcrncnl of soil suc-
tion.
• Nine in situ time domain retlectometry (fDR) probes for in
situ rneasuremenl of the soil water content.
• Six in situ filler paper dcvices (al various depths) for measure-
ment of soil suction.
• One thermocouple stack to measure the soil temperature.
• One deep piezometer.
• One automatic weather station.
General Comments
The Maryland site was commissioned in 1993 and is still being
monitored. elected prelirninary results have been previously
published by Allman et al. (1998). Detailed analyses of spccific
aspects of the study were commenced by Fityus (1999) and will
be published in subsequent papers.
The ground movement indicators have performed well, and
provided reliable, trouble free data on ground rnovement since the
field site was commissioned.
The neutron probe has proveo to be an effective meaos for
long-term monitoring of in situ water content changes, although
the extraction of absolute water content data from neutron probe
counts has proven to be problematic. The neutron probe is most
sensitive to the hydrogen concentration in a volume of soil which,
with sorne caveats, gives a direct indication of the volumetric
water content in inorganic soils (Chanasyk and Naeth 1996). Cor-
relation of the neutron count with the absolute water content is a
difficult task, particularly in expansive clay soils. Work on an
accurate, absolute correlation using neutron diffusion theory is
continuing. However, an indication of the relative changes in
water content can be obtained easily using cstablished approxi-
mate correlations dcveloped by agricultura! scientists (CPN
1992). Thc typically ernployed correlation between the neutron
count and water content is linear and it was used for the results
presented in lhis paper.
Note that therc is also inherent scatter (equivalent to about
±275 neutron counts in the values measured) which appears to be
in the rate of ernissions from the neutron source in the probe.
When water content profiles are measured repeatedly over a long
pcriod of time, this seatter causes the distribution of recorded
values to appear wider than it is, by about 275 counts. A corree-
tion of half of the scatter range has been applied to the measured
data distributions to compensate for this. That is, the lower cnve-
lope of readings has been increased, and the upper envelopc of
readings decrcased, by half of the average scattcr.
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING <C> ASCE / JULY 2004 / 689
The TDR probcs have retumed additional water content infor-
mation, but the quality of this was found to be, to sorne extent,
influenced by the method of probe insertion, as discussed by
Allman et al. (1998).
In situ measurement of suction has proveo to be difficult. The
use of in situ filler paper techniques failed because of free water
ingress through shrinkage cracks, which extended from the
ground surface down to the subsurface filler paper compartment
anywhere within the first meter of the soil. Gypsum blocks failed
because results went out of range in both very wet and very dry
conditions. Further, gypsum block results for rnidrange moisture
contents displayed inconsistent variability and were considered
unreliable. The best measurernents of suction have been deter-
mined on soil samples using a transistor psychrometer in the labo-
ratory. These results are presented in the following.
Selected Results and Observations
Background to Dlscuss/on
Al its most basic level, the Australian standard for thc dcsign of
residential slabs and footings (AS 2870 1996) provides standard
foundation designs and design approaches according to an as-
signed site class. Although three site classification methods are
accommodated, classification based on calculated ground surface
movement is con idered most appropriate for the Newcastlc re-
gion (Fityus and Delaney 1995). Calculation of potential ground
movement is carried out using a rationally based, empirically cali-
brated approach (described in AS 2870 1996) that employs pa-
rameters such as the following:
• The active depth; the depth to which seasonal water content/
suction changes occur, assumed to be 1.5 m for the Newcastle
arca;
• The maximum total change in suction at the ground surface, a
parameter largely controlled by climatic intluences and as-
sumed to be 1.5 pF units for the Newcastle area;
• The variation in suction change as a function of increasing
depth, assumed to decrease linearly with depth from a maxi-
mum value at the surface to zero at the active depth, in the
absence of better inforrnation;
• The shrink-swell potential of the clay (clay expansiviry),
given by an index that relates suction change to soil strain (AS
1289.7.1.1 1992); and
• The depth to which shrinkage cracks extend, considered to
define a zone which represents a transition from a three-
dimensional lo a ene-dimensional change in volume.
The widespread use of thc computation method for classifica-
tion in the Newcastle region makes it importan! that the param-
eters inherent in the calculation are sound. We continue consider-
ation of sorne of lhe fundamental observations from 7 years of
monitoring at the Maryland site and provide data on the first three
above parameters in the following.
Role of C/imate
Bcforc examining specific-sitc behavior, it is useful to make a
general assessment of the role played by climate in driving
changes in foundation soils at the sitc. A fuJI assessment of cli-
matic effects including rainfall, drainage, temperature, evapo-
transpiration, and other variables is bcyond the scopc of the
present discussion. A simplified qualitative assessment can be
madc by exarnining the relationship among thc tcmpcrarure (a
 wioter summcr wmter summer winter
1994 1996
date
Flg. 4. Comparison of local daily temperature, rainfall, and ground movement at Maryland field site
crude indication of loss of soil moisrure), rainfall (a crudc indi-
cation of the gain of soil moisture), and ground movement. A
comparison of these quantities is presented in Fig. 4.
Many significant observations can be made based on the data
presented in Fig. 4. These include the following.
• Toe Maryland soil profile exists predomínantly in a wetter/
expanded statc (about 70% of the time) and is in transition
berween wet and dry states at other times.
• Toe ground surface leve! has often remained steady at high
values during the study, suggesting that maxirnurn, wet-tirne
ground levels have beco observed. In contrast, the ground
leve! was not observed to remain at low values for any period
of time, with sudden, rainfall induced heave appearing to take
place before steady mínimum levels can be established. This
suggests that the mínimum dry-time ground levels, and hcncc
maximum overall ground movement, have not been obscrved
in the 7-year observation period.
l. There is a strong pauern in the temperature record showing
an annual cycle.
2. Tbere is a weaker, but relatively persistcnt, pattem in the
observed ground movement, on an approxirnately annual
cycle.
3. There is no obviously consisten! pattem in the rainfall
record.
• These observations suggcst that conditions that produce loss of
rnoisture have the dominant effect on long-term ground move-
mcnt cycles. Consider, for cxample, summer 1993 to 1994,
where low rainfall at the end of 1993, in thc hcight of summer,
corresponded to relatively severe ground shrinkage movement.
In contrast, a similarly low rainfall late in the wintcr of 1995
coincided with little or no ground shrinkage, becausc water
loss from the site was likcly to havc been much lower.
690 I JOUANAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
sumrner winter
• Notwithstanding the above, rainfall appears to have a domi-
nant effect on short-term ground movement. Since the tem-
perature pattems are relatively consistent, it would seem that
any summer should have the potential to produce severe
shrinkage movement. In sorne years these are realized (1993 to
1994, 1997 to 1998), yet in other years they are not (1998 to
1999). Whether or not movement is realized is controlled by
the sumrner rainfall; when it occurs frequently, shrinkage is
averted (1998 to 1999). when it occurs sporadically or sud-
denly, shrinkage is dramatieally reversed (1993 to 1994).
So// Moisture and Suction Changes in Open Areas
Laboratory deterrninations of gravimetric soil water content and
soil suction valucs were made on many occasions throughout the
srudy, including occasions of more sevcre wet and dry soil con-
ditions. These were made using freshly augured soil samples
taken from boreholes in the vicinity of the control. Total suction
measurements were made in the laboratory using a transistor psy-
chrometer and filler paper techniques. Toe measured values are
shown in Figs. 5(a and b). The following observations can be
made.
• In both cases, the variation in measured values can reasonably
be approximated as linearly decreasing with depth (below the
topsoil: log seale for suction), although there are local anoma-
lies at sorne depths.
• The variation in gravimetric water content is between 13 and
23% in the topsoil, and between 20 and 34% in the top of the
clay layer.
• The variation in total suction is betwcen 3.2 and 52 pF (160
and 16,000 kPa) in the topsoil, and between about 3.5 and 5.0
pF (320 and 10,000 kPa) in the top of the clay layer.
e ASCE / JULY 2004
 total suction (kPa)
1 10 100 1000 10000
-0.l K X 0.0 .---r---.-..,......,,..v-r--r--r""V!�11
-0.3
X
X J >se·� 0.2 f-f-Hll9f*�J-t-t-rí
XX XX 0.4 l--+-+--+-_,..���t--+--t---1
-0.5 \¡ � ,.
0.6 l--+---+--+--
-0.7 ) ...
) w: �) >(
. 0.8 1--+--+--+-----:i
i-0.9
>,: X � .
.
1.0 1---+--f---t--:

�·...
;,·
.e: l.l � ) �X .e: 1.2 1---+--f---t�
c..
.g -i.s X transistor psychrometer '
t I fr 1.4 1---+-t---t---t
"O

.i.s • filler paper (non-contact) r 1.6 1---+--+---t-t--:

l.8 1---+--+---t-M
(measurements made
l.7 between 1993 and 1998) 2.0 1--+---+-+--H�-t--+--t--r-i
.i.9 2.2 l--+---+-+-+--11:-1-+--t--r--1
2.4 1--+--4---4-¡........e,W-.--f---t-t---t--1
-2 . l �
"'
>< 2.6 1-+--+--+--t-.::::;l---t--t---+---t--,
·2 .3 2.8 1-+--+--+--+�l-+--+--+---t--,
><
·2 .5 3L--L.,_---L�.L.....-'----L�.L.....-'----'�-'--'
O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
total suction (pF) gravimetric water content (%)
Fig. 5. (a) Profiles of total soil sucuon: (b) profiles of gravimetric water conteot

• In both cases variation in measured values is observcd over
time at depths of up to 2.0 m. However, the magnitude of thc
variation is gcnerally small bclow about 1.3 m in the total
suction rcsults and 1.6 m in the gravimctric water conteot re-
sults,
Effect of Trees and Covers
A simple assessment of the effects of trces and covers can be
made by compariog the in situ soil water cooteot profiles taken at
appropriate locatioos duriog the study.
Envelopes of water content derived from the neuron probe that
represen! the extreme observations at various depths are com-
pared in Fig. 6 for open ground, the ccnter of a cover, adjacent to
a tree. The profiles shown reprcsent the upper and lower enve-
lopes of ali readings taken at each depth during thc project. ínter-
mediare values were omitted for clarity. The followiog observa-
tioos were made.
• Ali three envelopcs reflect the same basic shape characteris-
tics, which are similar to those of the gravimetric water coo-
tent data in Fig. 5(b). Most obvious are thc different bchaviors

0.00
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!lit l-1

:��
-1
2.50
fl�
l 47 readings 1 21 readings .. 116 readings '
3.00
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
moisture content (volurnetric, %)
a) NPl 1: open ground b) NP7: under tree e) NP4: centre of ground cover
Fig. 6. Comparison of cbanges in volumetnc water cootent cbaoge for different field condiuons

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING O ASCE I JULY 2004 / 691

,,.
Table 1. Details of Open Ground Movement at Maryl
�md� and Fi�Id Si� o , ,,..
o. \
o
, !./ // o.s ,- /
1,/' j '--
t>
.,. v
Distan ce
Dcscription

Vertical ground suñace movement at open ground

(mm)
l.
1T 1}/ V
1
51
control marker
1
: .l
l ·1
.s
Average vertical ground movement for ali 30 open 1 1 1
58 1 1
ground surface markers 2. 2.

I=:-
Range of vertical movement for ali 30 open ground 1 1 1
47-75 1 1 ...__ control (open)
surface markers � 1 1
-t- 2.5 t- flc,ublecover

observed above and below a depth of about 03 m. Above 03
m, the topsoil expcriences wide variations in water content,
but at lower overall values. Below 0.3 rn, the expansive clay
soils experience relatively smaller water content changes, but
at higher values. There are severa! rcasons for this. First, the
neutron probe measures the average water content in a
"sphere" of soil, of variable diameter (depending upon the
water content) betwecn 100 and 200 mm (Li et al. 2001). For
readings taken at depths of less than 100 mm sorne of this
volume may not include soil and, hence, the values will be
low. Second, the topsoil contains rouch less clay than the clay
soil, so the water content values it can achieve are lower.
Third, the topsoil supports a healthy cover of grasses which
are able to extraer rooisture to relatively low levels.
• Tbe roaximum water content change at dcpth in the open
ground arca becomes very sroall at about 1.4 rn, and is esscn-
tially O at about 1.6 m. This, too, is consisten! with the obser-
vations madc for the gravimetric water content values.
• The máximum water content change at dcpth adjaccnt to the
tree also becoroes very small at about 1.4 m, but then appears
to remain ata small, but consistent, valuc to a depth of around
25 ro. This is consistent with the expectation that large trees
are able to extend the active depth.
• The maximum water content change beneath the center of the
flexible cover is very small and confined to the upper 0.4 m.
Toe equilibrium moisture distribution below this depth shows
a consistent decrease with the depth, probably due to gradually
developed differences in soil texture.
Ground Movement
Details of the recorded open ground movement are presented in
Table 1. The results indicate that there is considerable variability
in the open ground movement realized across the site, but movc-
ment is generally within the range of 47-75 mm. While such
movement is likely to be considerably suppressed by the presence
of a stiffened, loaded foundation, it has the potcntial to produce
significant differential movement and corresponding structural
distress within a lightly loaded residential structure if adequate
foundations are not provided. This validatcs the selection of the
Maryland site for a field study of expansive soils behavior.
Ground movement envelopes with respect to depth are shown
for an open ground control area and for the center of the flexible
cover in Fig. 7. Fig. 7(a) shows the máximum recorded movemeot
at various deptbs relative to an initial ground height, while Fig.
7(b) shows the total range of movement. Note that the plots of
movements with respect to time for the open ground (NPI 1) arca
are those shown in Fig. 4. Importan! obscrvations are the follow-
ing.
• 1t is apparent from Fig. 7 that both locations have experienced
significant movement during the study. Fig. 7(b) suggests that
692 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY 2004
1 !
-20-10 O JO 20 30 40 SO O 10 20 30 40 SO 60
•) muimun movcmcnts b) muimum range of w,rucal IDOVCITJCRII
rdaUYC to trutw h<lgllt (mm)
Flg. 7. Ground movemcnt envelopes with respect to depth for open
ground area and thc center of the flexible cover
both sites have experienced moveroent of 8 mm which oc-
curred at depths in exccss of 3 ro. Examination of Fig. 4,
however, reveals that the consistent movement for soils at
deptbs of 25 and 3 m have, on average, coroprised a slight
heaving movement of only 2-3 mm, and the few deviations
that exceed this value are somewhat random and anomaJous.
This discrepancy betwcen Figs. 4 and 7 suggests that ground
level measurements are prone to random error of up to :::!:3
mm.
• Taking this error into account, it is apparent that most of the
soil movernent takes place above a depth somcwhere betweeo
15 and 2 m.
• For both thc open ground and covered arcas, most of the
movement is realized in the upper 1 ro of the soil profile. lo
the open grouod arca, about 50% of thc movement is realized
in the clay betwcen thc base of the topsoil at about 03 m and
a depth of 0.75 rn; 80% is rcalized between the topsoil and a
depth of 1 m. This behavior is consisten! with the larger
chaoges in water content and suctioo occurring at shallower
levels (Figs. 5(a and b)], and the greater expansive potential of
soils at shallower depths (Fig. 2).
• Rclative to the ground levcls which prevailed at the time of
ficld site cornmissioning, both arcas have recorded more heave
than shrinkagc. This is consisten! with an observation that the
site was relativcly dry when established.
• The covercd arca has rccorded a center heave of about 35 mm
that occurs mostly betwcen the base of the topsoil at 0.3 m and
a depth of about 0.5 m. This seems to be larger than might be
expected for only 0.2 m of clay soil, particularly when the
water content changes indicated in Fig. 6(c) are considered.
1t is also interesting to consider the relative contributioo to
surface movement made by the upper 0.5 m of soil in the open
and covered arcas, in which it is evideot that about 20 mm is
rcalized beneath the cover, while 9 mm is realized in the open
ground. At first glance, it rnight be suspected that the soil bencath
the cover is more reactive than that in the open ground area, but
an examination of construction details revcals that around 0.15 m
of topsoil was removed prior to constructing the cover, which
now comprises only 50 mm of sand. Thus, up to 0.15 m of topsoil
was removed from the typical sitc profilc, so that the upper 05 m
of soil beneath the cover now comprises 03-035 m of the most
cxpansive clay in thc profile. This should be compared with thc
uppcr 0.5 m beneath the open ground which comprises only 0.2-
025 m of expansivo clay.
 ....cr¡'..-
\
w.. � -..... 'b E /> <, ::.i • Undcr ali climatic conditions, thc mound shapes have a prorni-

""··�>cf·=�,-,;:�v / �--
\
/' \-:::. i,>-:.
.b) ............ ,: ,
<, \,: <, --
.... ¡ ......... - b) • ./
,:
\¡, ... 1) . \, ......
�-------
. •>·
• ; 1112194 • • • • •) • wy, prt 1997 ' '
• 8/4198 .... • 'C) • W)', - 1997
•••• ; 191!!193 ------ .. comtructcd
816195--b)- -.prtl997
2219199--cl)- ---1997
17
n 32
dulancc from nee (m)
Fig. 8. Profile of mound across the cover (W lo E)
Mound Profi/es
One of the main aims of tbe Maryland study was to observe the
shape characteristics of the center-heave or cdge-heave mounds
which occur after an impervious ground cover is constructed. Re-
inforced concrete slab designs for expansive soils siles can be
undertaken using a so-called "beam on mound" analysis {Walsh
and Cameroo 1977) if tbe extreme mound shapes beneath a cover
can be accurately estimated.
Fig. 8 shows east-west mound profiles measured on four dif-
fereot occasions in time following constructioo. In considering
Fig. 8. it should again be noted that the cover was constructed at
a Lime of relalive dryness. Key obscrvalions include the Iollow-
ing.
• Ground movemcnt beyond the cover is seen to undergo re-
peated shrinkagc and hcave due seasonal cyclcs. Movement
beneath the cover is consistent heaving, as the inilially dry soil
slowly becomes wct and approaches an equilibrium water con-
tent. These two behaviors seem almost independent of each
other, with the edge beam marking the boundary between
tbem.
• Under dry climatic conditions, thc mound shape is dominantly
center heave, with a long-term total mound height of around
55 mm [curve (e)]. This condition is likely to be most severe
after a long Lime when the covered soil has auained equilib-
rium wetness and can swell no further.
• Under wet conditions, there is only weak development of an
edge-hcave mound, which is more likely to be most severe if
the dry site wcre to be inundated by hcavy rain just alter
construclion.
/ <, nent dish shapc across thc top, bctwcen thc edge bcams, Toe
<, net result of this is that thc ccntcr-heavc mounds have an odd
.• / /
/ compounded shape, where the highest points on the mound líe
just within thc cdgc bcams.
¡ _.. _ -----T'- ...,. _
• The unusual mound shapc is further complicated by low points
that coincide with the edge beams. These are explained in a
·. \
way similar to the unexpectedly large undcrcover movement
discussed earlier. However, in this case, there is a reduction in
the depth of expansive clay in the soil profile due to its re-
·... �
moval through excavation for the edge beams.
37 42 • The mound shapc appcars to be asymmctric. Sorne of this
effect is possibly duc to sorne slight asymmetry in the relative
positions of the ground surface movcmcnt blocks and the
cover. Mostly, the asymmetry is considered to be a retlection
of the variation which is cvident in the ground surface move-
ment which occurs in the open ground arcas.
Fig. 8 shows that there is a gradual convergence of the ground
level bcncath the cover to sorne final equilibrium height, although
the rate of convergence is unclcar. It is clarified in Fig. 9 which
plots the ground lcvcl with Lime for the centcr of the cover and for
four points at the centcr of the edges, just insidc the edge beams.
Key observations include the following.
• The edges rise more quickly and attain their final heaved Jevel
in 5 to 6 years.
• The center rises more slowly and is still rising slowly after 7
years, although the majority of the heave has occurred within 4
years. It is intcrcsting to note this when considering the mound
profiles in Fig. 8, whcre curves (a) and {b) occurred within this
4-year period, and (e) and (d) occurred thcreafter.
Discussion and Conclusions
The Maryland expansive soils project has produccd a large quan-
tity of informalion which has allowed the phenomena associated
wilh expansive soils foundations to be better understood. It will
facilitatc the development of more refincd expansivc soils foun-
dation models into the future.
An importan! outcome of the field monitoring work is confir-
mation that in situ mcasurement of soil suction is a difficult task
that has a strong likelihood of unreliable results for the methods
asscssed. This outcome is consistent with the recently published
findings of Harrison and Blight (2000).
The observalion that the sito soils in thc study arca tend to
remain predominantly in a "heaved" state is also an important

--- -
.-.. 45
!40 - .
- - .- - - - . - - - .... � -...............
- :..:-:- -
fi 35 . - . . . .,,--:-: _ f-:-:-,r� .........-------=--
fi> 30
. ..··:,;..:..:..:.. t:2---..,. ...- -- -- ---- ,........:::.---
� 25
] 20
!.
-�
-- - i;o,::Y
--
SlA9
sus- - -
centre
NW edge -
,,� "
·13 15 SL53------ NE edge 1-

> 10 f1 _/ SL102 - - · - - · - · - - SE edge

5
<:r 00 - - - - -- sw edae
1-

(refu to Figure 1 íOf locations o surfacc markers)

o
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
time since construction of cover (years)

Flg. 9. Movement of sclected points on the covcr over time

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING <e ASCE / JULY 2004 / 693
 ,,11ll111111., \! hilé �uch ,he hd111vinr 1111{1ht be cxpcc,ctl 011 thc ll.is,�
,11 hx•ul expcncnce gul11cd iwc, time, il is u sne charnclcri�ltc th•u
°'
h not .'�·11Ul upp..11 •111 q1m11tifiublc without uvnllahlc long tcr;n
llulu I he result [rom thi,; rure, Ion� term ,111t1y i11 particulnrl
u, •ful to cnuble moro imJ1rcc1 mcthod'i ol time tic xnd • belu y
llll º"CS\llll!lll lo he • 1 • I Clll
cvu lllllctl • 1-or examptc McKccn ·1ntl
Jllhll�\lll ( 1990) 'ill""C\tC''
r,r,
ll l l , , '
u III u e 1mt111c index cullcd lhc 'l'horn
•
thwuho 1m11s1t11 ind • ,.., , MI) (n . .
1orn1hw11110 191IB) might serve us
,111 lndlcutor ni the u nlve dcplh 'l'he l'MI .
• ts u mensure of 1 1 ie
lontt 1 c1111 '•vcnty ol ,1 locul cllmare, dctermined Irom culeulauon
. Carr ami A�sociatcs l'ty. Lttl. ·¡ he writcr.i would also like to thank
of "111.cr �1lu11cc which cmploys estlmatcs ol ruinfull und cvapo
lr11n�p11u11on pot ntiol ob111incd Irom local climatic rccords. ll can
he contourcd over a reglen, in valúes bctwecn obout -100 anti
+ 100 A 1x1,i1h e valúe indicares a net, long 1cn11 moisture sur
plus ('.1 t�rcdominuncu of wet condltlons), whercas a negativo
vatue indicnt ·� u long tcrm rnoisture dcflcit (u prcdominanee of
dry eonditions), A vulu of zcro indicmcs a moisture balance.
From ' ork hy ri1yu,; et al. (1998). which sought to dcvclop
th.-. principlo for thc l luntcr Vallcy región of Australia, thc ·¡ MI
for Murylund is cstimatcd al +25, suggcsring thut thc arca should
b prone to a sligh; to modcruto long tcrm moisture surplus, This
b consistcm with tho observation thal soil heave predominares,
Thi� work wu extended 10 produce an estimare of the active
dcpth for Marylund of bctwcen 1.6 and 1.7 m, lt is slightly largor
thun thc vuluc indicatcd by the suction measured (1.3 m) but
consistcnt with thc valuc of 1.6 m indicatcd by thc gravimctric
and neutrón p be water contcnt measurcmcnts and the valuc of
l .'i 2 m indicutcd by the ground movemcnt mcasurcmcnts. ll
suggcsts that the TMI could he used as a rcliablc prcdictor of thc
a tivc dcpth in this región.
Bolh thc water contcnt and suction data suggcst that a linear
variation in suction with respect lo dcpth is a good approximation.
l lowcver, the chango in suction reali1.cd al thc surfaec is closc to
2.0 pr, excceding the suggestcd valuc of 1.5 pF given in AS 2870
(1996).
The above rcsults suggcst thal the dcsign suclion changcs sug
gesLctl by A 2870 (1996) in the calculation of open ground
movcmcnt (givcn carlicr, and based on anecdola.l cvidence) are, in
facl, nol entircly appropriate for the widcr Newcastlc rcgion. The
rcsults of t.his Mudy suggcst tJmt lhe active depth should be decpcr
and the surfacc suction change larger, which would lead to an
incrcase in the prcdictcd surfacc movcment valucs. When thc rec
ommended valuc of A 2870 are uscd, the prcdic1ed ground
movcment for Maryland is 41 mm, which is a significant undcr-
estimation of the measurcd values of between 47 and 75 mm
(Fityus 1999). The observations from Lhis study thus facililate an
improvcmcnt to current local prnclicc.
The water content change obscrvations adjaccnl lo the treo
would seem to indicate that the prcsence of the tree rcsults in an
incrc.1se in thc active depth. However, thc water contenl changc
below 1.6 m is so small that this outcome cannol coafidenúy be
slatcd as a fim1 conclu ion. Thc results do suggest that thc water
conlent change cnvclopc in trce-affectcd arcas cannot be approxi-
matcd as lincarly varying with the depth Lhroughout an incrcased
a tivc deplh.
Rcsults from ú1e flexible cover inclicatc lhat the critical mound
shapc in this case is a centcr-hcave mound which is likcly lo be
mosl severo during a dry pcriod, a long time after construction.
fhis situation is strongly influenccd by lhe dry condilions which
prcvailcd al the time of construction.
The mound has an unusual compound shapc, with a pro-
nounccd dish fcaturc across the lop of lhe mound, betwoen lhc
edgc bcams. Wetting of lhe covered rcgion is still continuing after
694 / JOUANAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ANO GEOENVIAONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY 2004
H ycar11, ullhough 1hc wclling wa" m,,.,úy complew after 11boot 4
ycurH. ll amx:M• that wctling bcncath lhc covercd area í• not
si¡n11lcuntly uffcclcd by tlry clímatc cvenL'I, 1Juggc�1Jng that the
ctlgc hcums havc a Hignific-Jnl controlling cffcct on lateral move-
mcnt of moi�lurc from thc ctlgc" of covcrff.
IUV
' Aoknowlodgmonta
'I his rc,carch was supportcd by thc Mine Subsídence Board of
Ncw South Wales, 1hc Au�Lr.tlían ReM:arch Council, and Robert
thc revicwers of this work for Lhcír wísdom and dilígence.
Appendlx: Shrlnk-Swell lndex Test
(AS 1289 7.1.1 1992)
Thc :,hrink-swcll rntlcx has bccn Lhe mosl commonJy employed
tohoratory· bascd mcasurc of 1hc expansivo potcntial of ciar �Is
in Australia for thc past 15 ycars. Ground movcmcnt prcd1ct1ons
bascd on 1he rcsults of shrink swell tests are generally successful
(Camcron 1989). Shrink-swcll test results have a cocfficient of
variation of ahout 25% and havc bccn consídcred sufficienlly re-
liablc for adoplion into evcryday Australian practice for Lhe dc-
sign of foundations for lighlly loadcd, residential !>LrUCtures
(Walsh and Cameron 1997).
Thc shrink \well tcsl (AS 1289 7.1.l 1992) comprises both
shrinkagc and swelling test components, carriod out on compan-
ion soil samples, initially at lheir field waler conlents. Tbc core
shrinkagc componen! involves, first, air drying, and then oven
drying of an unrestrained, undisturbed, 50-mm coro sample. Toe
swell componenl involves a simple oedomeler Lest in which the
undisturbcd sample is seaLed under a nominal 25-k.Pa load beforc
being inundated wilh distilled waler and allowed to swcll until the
soil saturates. hrinkage strain (e..,) and swell strain (esw) are
mcasurcd in Lhc respective Lcsts, and combined lo give a swelling
(shrink-swcll) indcx, J.,, according to
(1)
Thc numerator of lhis exprcssion is an estimale of the nel volu-
metric strain belwccn the conditions of oven dry and saturatcd.
Thc divisor of 2. applicd to the swell componenl, is to account for
lhe effccts of la1ernl confinement, and usod lo estimate equivalent
swell strain undcr condilions of no lateral confinernenl. The suil-
ability of lhe valuc of 2 was assessed for two contrasling clay
soils in a detailed laboratory study by Fityus and Welbourne
(1996), and fouod to be appropriate for the purpose inlended.
Tho denominalor of l.8 in Eq. (l) is an eslimate of lhe offec-
tive rango of change in suction that corrcsponds to a chango in
soil volume as lhe water content changes between the states of
oven dry and saturntion. It is in units of pF, dofined as Iog nega-
tive (free onergy pcr unit volume of water), and approximated by
log negativo (hydraulic head in centimeters), or by 1 +log(suclion
in k.Pa).
The shrink-swcll approach provides a real physical assess-
ment of expansivo potential, wilhout requiriag measurement of
soil suction. The assumptions of chango in suction and lateral
restraint effccts, which are employcd in the procedure, are able Lo
give repealable prccliction results, which are largely independent
of the water content of the samples wben teslcd.
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