CHAPTER 2 CELL BIOLOGY AND ORGANISATION

Cell structure and Function

1. Cells are basic unit of life. The cell is the basic unit or building block for all living organisms.
2. The function of cells is to carry out life processes such as respiration, excretion, growth and division.
3. Cells exists in various shape and sizes depending on their function.
4. Cells are very small. Most cells are in the range of 1 μ m (bacteria) to 100 μ m (plant cells)
5. An microscope is an instrument that produces an enlarged image of an object.
6. Light microscope (compound microscope) use lenses to bend light rays to magnify objects.
7. A light microscope has X1500 to X2000 magnification.
8. Magnifying power of a microscope =
Magnifying power of the eyepiece lens X Magnifying power of the objective lens
Examples:
If the magnifying power of the eyepiece lens is 10 times and the magnifying power of the
objective lens is 40 times, then
the magnifying power of a microscope = 10 x 40 = 400 times.

9. Generally, a cell is made up of a plasma membrane which contains protoplasma.

10. Protoplasma is made up of cytoplasm 细 胞 质 (jelly-like medium )and a nucleus 核 (contains genetic
materials)
Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleus.
11. The cytoplasm contains many organelles.
12. Organelles 细胞器(little organs) are microstructures which carry out specific 个别 functions within the
cell.
13. Organelles that are found in animal cells include the nucleus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
内质网, mitochondria 线粒体, Golgi apparatus 高尔基体, lysosomes, 溶酶体， ribosomes 核糖体,
centrioles 中心粒 and vacuoles 空泡。.
14. Plant cells have chloroplasts 叶绿体 in addition to all the organelles in animal cells, except centrioles.
15. An electron microscope is used to reveal the detailed structure of organelles. An electron microscope
can produce a good image of up to X 1 000 000 magnification.

Components of Animal and Plant Cells

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 Cellular component Structure Function

Non organelles

Plasma membrane  Is also known as cell membrane Controls the movement of

质膜  is a thin membrane around the substances in and out of the cell.
cytoplasm
 is selectively permeable 选择性渗
透 or partially permeable 部分可渗
透 or semi-permeable 半透.
 is made up of two lipid layers.

Cytoplasm 细胞质  is a jelly-like substance that fills the  Acts as a medium for metabolic
cell reactions 代谢反应
 consists of 70% to 90% water,  Supplies the substances required
by the organelles.

Cell wall  is the thick layer surround the plasm  Maintains the shape of the plant
细胞壁 membrane cells
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  made up of cellulose and fully  Provides support for plant body.
permeable and allows all the  Prevents plant cell from bursting
substances to pass through it. 爆 破 when water enters it by
osmosis in dilute solution.
Organelles
Nucleus  Spherical with a double membrane 双  Controls and regulates all the
(plural: nuclei) 膜 activities of the cell such as
 Contains nucleolus, 核仁 growth, repair and cell division.
chromosomes 染色体, nucleoplasm  Carries the genetic material of
核质 and nuclear membrane 核膜 cells in the form of DNA.


Ribosomes  Are compact 紧凑 and spherical 球体  Synthesis 制造 of protein ( such
核糖体 organelles. as enzymes)
 Small particles consisting of RNA
 Bound ribosomes 结 合 核 糖 体 are
attached to the surface of ER.
 Free ribosomes 游 离 核 糖 体 are
suspended in the cytoplsm.

Endoplasmic  Consists of a network of folded

reticulum (ER) membranes forming interconnected
内质网 tubules or sacs.
 Is physically continuous with the
nuclear membrane
 Two types of ER:

Rough endoplasmic
reticulum  Is ER with ribosomes embedded 嵌 on  Transports proteins made by
粗面内质网 its surface ribosomes
 Is a flat sealed sac 密 封 囊 that is
continuous with the nuclear
Smooth membrane
endoplasmic
reticulum  Is tubular 管状的 rather than flat  synthesises fats (lipids) and
滑面内质网  Does not have ribosomes steroids such as sex hormones.
 May extend separately from the outer  It also contains enzymes that
membrane of the nucleus or extend detoxify drugs and poisons.
from the rough ER

Mitochondria  Known as “power house” of the cell  Produces energy (ATP,

线粒体  Rod-shaped 杆状 with a double adenosine triphosphate)
(singular: membrane 双膜  Site of aerobic cellular

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mitochondrion)  Outer membrane is smooth and respiration
regular, inner membrane 内层膜 is
folded 折叠 to form cristae

Golgi apparatus  Also called Golgi body
高尔基体  Consist of a stack 堆 栈 membrane-
bound sacs with small vesicles
budding off the edges 边缘.
 Receives proteins from rough
ER, then modifies 修改 and
combines the proteins with
carbohydrates to form
glycoproteins 糖蛋白。.
 Function as a processing 加工,
packaging 包装 and transport
centre of carbohydrates,
proteins and glycoproteins.糖蛋
白

Lysosomes 溶酶体  Membrane-bound spherical 球体  Destroys worn-out 破烂

vesicles formed by pinching off 捏
from the Golgi apparatus.
 Contains digestive enzyme 消化酶
called lysozyme (hydrolytic
enzyme 水解酶)
(During the metamorphosis 变态 of a
tadpole 蝌 蚪 into a frog, lysozymes
in the cells causes the digestion of the
tail)
organelles
 Involved in autolysis 自溶(break
down the cell after its death)
 Digest the protein, lipids,
carbohydrates.
 Digest bacteria by breaking
down the bacterial cell wall.

Chloroplasts  Are disc-shaped 盘 状 (lens-  Carry out photosynthesis 光合作

叶绿体 shaped 透 镜 状 ) organelle 用.
with a double membrane
 Have an inner and outer
membrane
 Contain chlorophyll 叶 绿 素
(green pigment) in the grana
to “trap” 获 sunlight energy.

Centrioles 中心粒  Are paired cylindrical organelles  Formation of spindle 纺 锤

just outside the nucleus during cell division 细 胞 分 裂
 Lie 位 于 at right angles to each (mitosis 有 丝 分 裂 and meiosis
other 减数分裂)

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  Each centriole consists of nine
tubes, each tube with three tubules.
 Are only found in the animal cells.

Vacuoles 空泡  A small cavity in cytoplasm filled  Contains water, sugars, amino

with cell sap 细胞液 surrounded
by a semi-permeable membrane
called tonoplast 液泡.
 The fluid contained in the vacuole
is called cell sap.
acids and dissolved minerals
waste substances, pigment 色 素
in its sap
 Food vacuoles in amoeba for
phagocytosis 吞 噬 作 用 and
contractile 收 缩 vacuoles in
paramecium expel 排出 water
 Stores anthocyanins 花 青 素
which provide various colours to
fruits and flowers.
 Maintain turgidity 硬 胀 of cells
in plants

Comparison Between the Structure of an Animal Cell and a Plant Cell

Similarities
Animal cell and plant cell each have:
A nucleus, cytoplasm, a cell membrane, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum ( rough and smooth).
Differences
Structures / characteristic Animal cells Plant cells
Size Generally s______ than plant Generally l______ than
cells animal cells.
Shape Do not have fixed /regular
shape.
Cell walls
Chloroplasts Do not have chloroplasts Have chloroplasts which
contains ch__________
Vacuoles Usually exists as numerous Have a large central vacuole
small vacuoles (contractile
vacuole and food vacuoles)
in lower animal cells
(Amoeba sp.)
Centrioles
Lysosomes Common Uncommon
Food storage Carbohydrate is stored in the Carbohydrate is stored in the
form of g_________ form of s_________

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 Cellular components Animal cell Plant cell
Plasma membrane √ √
Cytoplasm √ √
*Cell wall X √
Nucleus √ √
Ribosomes √ √
Rough endoplasmic reticulum √ √
(ER)
Smooth endoplasmic √ √
reticulum
Mitochondria √ √
Golgi apparatus √ √
Lysosomes √ X
*Chloroplasts X √
*Centrioles √ X
*Vacuoles √/X √
√ = present X = absent

Living Processes of Unicellular Organisms

1 A unicellular organism is an organism consisting of a single cell that performs 进行 all the basic
living processes, which include locomotion (moving), feeding, reproduction, osmoregulation, respiration
and excretion.
2 Examples of unicellular organisms are Amoeba sp.变形虫, Paramecium sp.草履虫, Chlamydomonas
sp.衣藻, bacteria and Euglena sp.裸藻

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 Amoeba sp.
Habitat 1. Many species live in freshwater 淡
栖息地 水 and ponds and are also
abundant in damp 潮湿 soil.
2. Most are free-living while others
are parasitic.寄生
General features 1. Has irregular shape 不 规 则 形 状 ,
一般特征 with a diameter of about 0.1 mm.
2. Its plasma membrane, which
encloses 包 围 the cytoplasm,
consists of an outer ectoplasm and
inner endoplasm.
3. Other cellular structures are a
nucleus, food vacuoles and a
contractile vacuole.
Locomotion 1. It moves by flowing its cytoplasm
行动 forward, forming a pseudopodium
伪足(means false foot, plural:
pseudopodia)
2. This is known as amoeboid
movement.
3. Pseudopodia can be extended out in
any direction.
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Paramecium sp.
Most are found abundantly 多 in
freshwater ponds rich in decaying 腐烂
organic matter 有机物 . It feeds on 吃
the bacteria that cause decay.
1. It has a slipper-like shape, with a
length of about 0.3 mm.
2. The outer surface of the cell
membrane is covered with fine
hairs, called cilia 纤 毛 (singular –
cilium)
3. Other cellular structures are a large
macronucleus, a smaller
micronucleus, food vacuoles and
two contractile vacuoles.
4. On the side an oral groove leads to
the gullet 消 化 道 and ends with a
cytostome.
1. It uses its hair-like cilia to beat
against the water, enabling it to
swim.
2. To swim forward, it beats its cilia
backwards diagonally 对角; to swim
backwards, it beats its cilia forward.
3. As it moves forward through the
water, it rotates on its axis.
Feeding 1. An Amoeba sp. Is an omnivore 杂食
动物 and eats algae 藻类, bacteria,
plant cells, and other microscopic 微
小 organisms.
2. When the Amoeba comes in contact
with its food, two pseudopodia
extent out and enclose the food
particles in a drop of water, forming
a food vacuole.
3. The cytoplasm secrete lysozyme 溶
菌酶 enzyme into the food particle
to digest the food.
4. The digested substances are
absorbed into the cytoplasm while
the undigested 未消化的 materials
are removed when the vacuole
comes in contact with the plasma
membrane and break.
Reproduction 1. An Amoeba sp. reproduce asexually
生殖 by
a) binary fission 二分裂
b) formation of spores 孢子
2. Binary fission – takes place in the
favourable conditions 有利条件 and
sufficient food supply. When it
reaches a maximum size, the nucleus
divides into two and the cytoplasm
constricts, forming two daughter
Amoeba.
3. Formation of spores – take place
when the condition is unfavourable
( dry, insufficient food). These
spores germinate 发芽 into Amoeba
sp, again under favourable
conditions.
4. The Amoeba does not reproduce
sexually.
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1. Paramecium sp. eats bacteria and
microscopic organic material.
2. First, the sweeping movement of
cilia moves the food along the oral
groove into the gullet and cytostome
where a food vacuole forms, and
pinches 捏 off.
3. The food vacuole circulates round
the cell while the food is being
digested.
4. Nutrients diffuse into the cytoplasm
and are used to generate energy.
5. Finally, any undigested food is
eliminated 去除 at the anal pore 肛
孔.
1. Paramecium sp. reproduces
asexually 无性 as well as sexually.
2. It has two nuclei. The
macronucleus 大核 controls
cellular metabolism of the cell and
asexual reproduction while the
micronucleus 小核 is required for
sexual reproduction.
3. In a favourable environment, it
reproduces asexually by binary
fission. First, the two nuclei divide,
then the cytoplasm splits to produce
two daughter cells.
 4. Under unfavourable environmental
condition, two Paramecia reproduce
sexually by conjugation. Two
individuals come together and
exchange parts of their nuclei. Then
they separate and each can later
divides to give 4 new cells. These 8
individuals have different genetic
materials.

Responses to 1. Amoeba sp. reacts by retreating 撤
stimuli 退 from adverse 不利 stimuli such
as bright light and acidic solutions.
2. In contrast, favourable stimuli, such
as contact with food, cause it to
move towards the stimuli.
1. Paramecium sp. has cilia which
function as sensory structures.
2. It is sensitive to chemicals, O2, CO2,
pH and physical stimuli such as
light, contact and temperature.
3. It moves towards or away from the
stimulus depending on whether it is a
pleasant 愉快 or unpleasant one.

Respiration 1. The exchange of gases of Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. takes place
呼吸 throughout the whole plasma membrane.
2. Oxygen diffuses from the environment into the cell while carbon dioxide
diffuses from the cell into the environment.

Excretion For both organisms, waste products such as nitrogenous wastes (ammonia) and
CO2 are expelled from the cell into the environment by diffusion.
Osmoregulation 1. Water continually moves into both organisms by osmosis.
渗透调节 2. To prevent the animal from bursting, the contractile vacuole collects all the
excess water.
3. when the vacuole is filled to its maximum size, it expels the water outside the
cell.
4. Amoeba sp. has only one contractile vacuole, but Paramecium sp. has two
contractile vacuoles.

Living Processes of Multicellular Organisms 多细胞生物

1. Multicellular organisms arc organisms with more than one cell.
2. Multicellular organisms are more complex 复杂 than unicellular organisms. For example, fungi, hydra,
spirogyra 螺旋藻, animals and plants.
3. Every cell is different in terms of shape, form, structure and function.
4. Cells inside multicellular organisms undergo 经历 differentiation 分化 to become specialised 专门的
cells.
5. In this process, cells change forms and structure that suits 适合 its functions.

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 Specilased cells in human
Specialized cell Adaptations and functions
• The epithelial cells are thin and flattened 平. Therefore, the cells form a
thin layer to line all the body surfaces such as the skin and inner surface of
organs such as the blood vessels, intestine and throat.
• Epithelial cells are tightly packed. Therefore, they act as barriers to the
Epithelial cells movement of fluids and harmful pathogens that invade the body.
上皮细胞
• A red blood cell has a biconcave 双面凹 shape. Both sides of its surface
curve inward, which enables the cell to squeeze 挤 through tiny 细小 blood
vessels for the transportation of oxygen to organs and tissues.
•There are no nucleus, mitochondria or ribosomes in a red blood cell.
Red blood cells
Therefore, there is ample 足够 of space 空间 for the enormous amount 大量
of haemoglobin 血红蛋白 molecules
• White blood cells can change shape and they are mobile 移动. Therefore,
they can flow through the bloodstream to the infection site 感染部位 and
destroy viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders 入侵者 that threaten
White blood cells one’s health.
• The head contains genetic information 信息 to pass on from the father to
the child and an enzyme to help penetrate the egg cell membrane.
• The middle section is packed with mitochondria for energy required to
move.
• The tail is long to enable the sperm to swim towards the egg in the
Sperm Fallopian tube.
• There are different types of muscle cells, namely cardiac 心肌, skeletal 骨
骼肌 and smooth muscle 平滑肌 cells.
• Each type of muscle cell is adapted to carry out its particular function. For
example, skeletal muscle cells merge together to form fibres attached to the
bones. Therefore, when the fibres contract, the bones can be moved. There
is a large amount of mitochondrion in the cells to produce a large amount of
energy required for the contraction.
Muscle cells
• The nerves cells are extremely long. Functions in sending impulse.

Nerve cells
.
Specilased cells in plants
Specialized cell Adaptations and functions
• The xylem vessels 木质部 are long, continuous and hollow 空心的
tubes which facilitates 促进 the transportation of water and dissolved
minerals from the root up to all the other parts of the plant.
• The walls of xylem vessels are made up of cellulose 纤维素 and
strengthened by lignin 木质 to provide mechanical support to the stem,
making the plant upright.直立

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 • Sieve tube cells 筛管细胞 are living cells connected together from end
to end, forming a long sieve tube.
• Transports organic substances 有机物 from the leaves to storage
organs such as fruits.

• Root hair cells 根毛细胞 have a very thin wall with long projections
凸起 that increase the surface area to increase the rate of water and
minerals absorption.

• The guard cells are a pair of bean-shaped cells surrounding a stoma 气

孔.
• The thickness of the inner side of the cell wall is more than the
thickness of the outer side. Thus, the guard cells bend outward when they
become turgid, causing the stoma to open.
• Function in controlling the opening and closing of stomata for gaseous
exchange.

• The palisade mesophyll cells consist of elongated cylindrical cells,

arranged vertically and closely arranged in order to absorb maximum
light.
• There are many chloroplasts circulating round the palisade cells to
enable maximum light absorption.
• There is a large vacuole in each cell that pushes chloroplasts to the edge
of the cell to absorb more light.

• The spongy mesophyll cells are irregular-shaped cells, loosely packed

with lots of air spaces in between to aid in the exchange of gases needed
for photosynthesis and respiration.

Tissue Organisation in Humans

1 In multicellular organisms, the same type of cells which carry out a specific function are organised into a
tissue.组织
2 Tissues are groups of similar cells that have a similar function. There are four types of tissues in humans,
which are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

Types of animal Characteristics Functions Examples

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 tissue
(a) Epithelial  Consists of one or  The epithelial tissues which Surface of skin,
tissue more layers of cells. form the surface of the skin lining of stomach,
上皮组织  Form thin sheets that act as a protective barrier 保 small intestine,
line and cover body 护屏障 against mechanical trachea 气管 and
structures injuries, chemicals and lungs.
dehydration 脱水.
 Epithelial cells in the lining of
the small intestine absorb
nutrients after digestion is
completed.
 Epithelial cells may undergo 经
历 modification 变化 to form
mucus secreting goblet cells
杯状细胞 which secrete
mucus into the digestive tract
消化道.
 Certain epithelial tissues are
modified to form glands 腺 in
the skin for example, sweat
glands 汗腺 and sebaceous
Epithelial tissue on the surface of the glands 皮脂腺。
intestines

Epithelial tissue on the surface of the

trachea
(b) Nervous  Consists of nerve  To transmit 传送 the nerve  Afferent 传入
tissue cells called neurons impulses 神经冲动 neurone, efferent
神经组织 神经细胞.  Control and coordinate 协调 传出 neurone,
 Found in the brain all activities of the body. interneurone.中间
and the spinal cord 神经元
脊椎神经.

( c)Muscle  Are composed of  Contractions of skeletal  Skeletal muscles

tissue long cells called muscles produce movements are attached to the
muscle fibres 肌肉 of various body parts. bones of the
纤维。. skeleton.
 Three types of  Smooth muscles are
muscle tissues: responsible for the  Smooth muscles
skeletal muscle 骨骼 involuntary 不随意 actions are found along
肌, smooth muscle of the body such as peristalsis the walls of the
平滑肌, and cardiac along the alimentary tract. digestive tract,
muscle. Contract slowly compared to blood vessels,

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 skeletal muscles but can bladder 膀胱 and
remain contracted for a longer reproductive tract.
period of time.
 Cardiac muscles
心肌 form the
 Cardiac muscles contract to wall of the heart.
pump the blood to all parts of
the body. Cardiac muscle
contraction is involuntary.

(d)Connective  Consists of various  Binds the body structures  Blood, bones,

tissue types of tissues and ( cells, tissues ) together adipose tissue 脂
结缔组织 fibres.  Provides support and 肪组织, cartilage,
 This tissue is protections to other tissues. tendons,
distributed all over  Blood transport oxygen and ligaments, lymph.
the body and has nutrients to cells and remove
many functions. CO2 and waste products from
 Loose Connective the cells.
Tissue links the  Bones provide protection to
epithelial tissue to the organs and support the body.
tissue below it, and  Fat cells store energy insulate
fixes the organs in their 隔离 the body against heat
positions. loss.
 Fibrous Connective  Cartilage provide support to
Tissue the nose, ears, and cover the
Form tendons and ends of bones at joints and
ligaments. The tendon protect the bones from
connects bones and wearing out.
muscle while the  Tendons attach muscle to
ligaments connect bones
bones to bones.  Ligaments attach bones to
bones.

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  Adipose tissue
脂肪组织 keep fat
under the skin
dermis 真皮 and the
surface of all main
organs
 Cartilage 软骨 is a
strong yet flexible
connective tissue.
 Bones consists of
cells embedded 嵌入
in a matrix 基质 of
collagen 胶原蛋白
hardened by mineral
deposites such as
calcium.
 Blood tissue
consists of blood
cells which
suspended 悬浮 in
the blood plasma.

Tissue Organisation in Plants

1. There are two types of plant tissues, which are meristematic 分生 tissues and permanent tissues.
2. Meristematic tissues
(a) Meristematic tissues are made up of actively dividing cells chat have not undergone differentiation
and these cells have thin cell wall, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and no vacuole.
(b) There are two types of meristematic tissues based on where the tissue is situated, namely apical 顶端
meristem 分生组织 and lateral 外侧 meristem.

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 (c) Apical meristems are located at the tips 尖
of shoots and roots. The cells found here are
actively undergoing mitosis 细胞分裂 to increase
their number for growth.

(d) Lateral meristems/cambia, located in the

peripheral 周边 areas of stems and roots, are
responsible for secondary growth 二次增长 to
support plants.

3. Permanent tissues
(a) Permanent tissues are made up of cells that are larger and no longer actively dividing, they are
completely differentiated. The tissues are found throughout the plant body.
(b) There are three types of permanent tissues, which are epidermal tissues, ground tissues and
vascular tissues.

Tissue Characteristics Functions

1. Epidermal  Consists of one layer of cells
tissue 表皮组织  Covers entire surface of the plants
 The walls of epidermal cells
(epidermis) are normally covered
by a waxy, waterproof coating
called the cuticle 角质层.
 Most epidermal cells are flat and
have large vacuoles.
 Protects underlying tissues 皮下组织
from physical damage and infection by
disease-causing microorganisms.
 The cuticle helps prevent the loss of
excessive water.
 In roots, some of the epidermal cells
have long projections called root hairs
根毛 which increase the surface area for
absorption of water and minerals.
 In leaves, the lower epidermis contains
guard cells 保卫细胞 which surround
the stomata 气孔.

2. Vascular tissue  Are continuous throughtout the

plant  Xylem tissues transport water and
 Involved in the transport of mineral salts from roots to the stems
substances between the roots and and leaves.
the shoots 芽.  Xylem tissues also provide support to
 Consists of xylem tissue 木质部 the plants.
and phloem 韧皮部 tissue.  Phloem tissues transport nutrients
 Xylem tissue consists of long and such as glucose from the leaves to the
continuous hollow tubes (xylem roots and stems. 茎
vessels) joined together from the
roots to the leaves.
 Phloem tissue consists of sieve
tubes which are arranged end-to-
end to form a long and
continuous tube structure.

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 3. Ground tissue  Includes cells that fill the spaces  Parenchyma cells stores sugar and
between epidermal and vascular starch. When it is turgid, it gives
tissues. support to herbaceous 草本 plants.
 Three types of ground tissues:  The palisade mesophyll cells and
1）Parenchyma 薄壁 tissue spongy mesophyll cells in leaves are
consists of thin-walled cells specialized parenchyma cells which can
which are loosely arranged 排列疏 carry out photosynthesis.
松，with spaces between them.  Collenchyma cells give support in
Can be found in all the organs of herbaceous plants (non-woody plants),
the plant. young stems, leaf stalks and petioles 叶
 2）Collenchyma 厚角组织 tissue 柄.
consists of elongated 拉长,  Sclerenchyma cells supports and
polygonal cells with unevenly 不 strengthens 加强 the plant body.
均匀 thickened cell walls. The
cell walls are thickened by
cellulose 纤维素 and pectin 果胶.
They are strong and flexible.
 3）Sclerenchyma 厚壁 cells are
much more rigid 生硬 than
collenchyma cells because they
have cell walls which are
uniformly thickened by lignin 木
质. Most of the cells are dead at
maturity 成熟

Density of certain cell components and specialised cell functions

1. Since the functions performed by cells are different, some cells have a higher density of certain
cell components.
2. The density of a cell component in a particular cell is related to the specific function of the cell.
Type of cell Organelles with high Function
density
Sperm cells Require a lot of energy to move through the uterus to the
Fallopian tube to fertilise the ovum
Muscle cells, for Mitochondria Require a lot of energy for the contraction
example flight Mitochondria and relaxation of muscles to enable movement
muscle cells in
insects and birds
Meristem cells Require a lot of energy for the active division of cells to
produce new cells for growth

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 Palisade mesophyll Chloroplast To trap more sunlight to carry out photosynthesis
cells and spongy
mesophyll cells
Pancreatic cells Rough endoplasmic To increase the synthesis and secretion of hormones and
reticulum and Golgi digestive enzymes
apparatus
Cells in the salivary To increase the synthesis and secretion of digestive
glands enzymes

Liver cells Smooth endoplasmic Carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification of drugs

reticulum and Golgi and poisons
Apparatus
Goblet cells in the Golgi apparatus Secretion of mucus
intestinal epithelium
and respiratory tract

The effect of deficiency, absence or failure in the function of a cell component

1 Without lysosomes, microorganisms, damaged cell components and toxic materials cannot be hydrolysed.
The accumulation of toxic substances in the cell, for example in nerve tissue, will damage it.
2. Without chloroplasts, photosynthesis cannot occur. Organic substances cannot be synthesised and
oxygen is not released.
3. Without ribosomes, protein synthesis cannot occur. Without proteins, damaged cells or tissues cannot be
repaired, the structure of cells cannot be maintained and cell division cannot occur.
4. Tay-Sachs
(i) It is is a rare 罕见 genetic 遗传性 disorder 疾病 that is passed from parents to their children.
(ii) It is caused by the failure of the organelle lysosome to produce the enzyme required to break
down fatty substances. This leads to a buildup of fatty substances in the brain, which destroys nerve cells,
causing mental and physical problems.
(iii) Symptoms associated with Tay-Sachs disease may include:
• Slow growth, mental retardation 智障, muscle weakness 无力, and loss of sight and hearing.
5. Mitochondrial dysfunction 功能不良
(b) Mitochondrial dysfunction
(i) results from failure of the mitochondria. Therefore, the energy generated within the cell reduces over
time.
(ii) The parts of the body such as the heart, brain, lungs and muscles will be affected since they require lots
of energy to function.
(iii) Symptoms associated with 有关 mitochondrial dysfunction include:
• Weak muscles
• Severe 严重 delay 延迟 in growth
• Inability to walk, talk, see and digest food.

Cell Organization

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1. The organization of cells allowed every part of a multicellular organism to perform various function
efficiently.
2. A multicellular organism has five levels of organization, ranging from the simplest to the most complex:
Cell → tissue 组织 → organ 器官 → system 系统 → organism 生物

Level of organisation Meaning

Cell The smallest unit of life capable of carrying out all the functions of living
things
Tissue A group of cells of the same type that perform a specific function in an
organism
Organ Several types of the tissue that carry out a particular 特殊 system

System Several organs working together to perform a function

Organism All systems combine 结合 to form a multicellular organism

Organs

1. A group of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function is called an organ.
2. Examples of organs in animals are the heart 心 脏 , stomach, skin, kidneys 肾 , lungs, intestine,
liver 肝, blood vessels, eyes and ears.
3. Each organ in an animal is formed from the four main types of animal tissue. For example, the
heart is made up of epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue and connective tissue to pump
blood to all parts of the body.
• Cardiac muscle tissues contract and relax to pump blood throughout the body.
• Epithelial tissues line the wall of the heart to protect and allow the diffusion of substances.
• Connective tissues carry out various functions, for example make the wall of the heart
and valves strong.
• Nerve tissues control the rhythm 节奏 of the heartbeat.
4. Certain organs perform more than one function. For example the liver can convert 换 excess
glucose 葡萄糖 to glycogen 糖原 as well as secrete bile 胆汁.

Systems

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1. Several organs which work together to carry out a specific function is called system (organ system)
2. The human body has twelve different systems, each performing a specific function in the body.

Circulatory 血 液 循 环
Nervous system Skeletal 骨骼 system system
Major Brain, spinal cord, nerves Bones, cartilage, tendons, Heart, blood vessels,
organs ligaments. blood
Main  Controls and coordinates Supports the body  Transportation of food,
functions body activities Protects internal organs respiratory gas, heat,
Provides movement hormones, and waste.

Digestive system Respiratory system Excretory system

Major Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, Nose, trachea, lungs Kidneys, lungs, skin
organs liver, pancreas, small and large
intestine
Main Breaks down food into small Supplies oxygen to the  Removes waste products
functions substances so that they can be body and removes CO2. of metabolism such as
absorbed by the cells. urea and CO2.

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 Reproductive system
Major Male: testes, seminal vesicles,
organs penis
Female: ovaries, Fallopian
tubes, uterus, vagina
Main  Produces gametes (sex cells)
functions for sexual reproduction.
Muscular system
Skeletal muscles, smooth
muscles and cardiac
muscles.
Provides movements
Integumentary 外皮
system
skin
 Protects the body from
mechanical injuries,
microbial infection and
dehydration.

Lymphatic 淋巴 system Sensory system

Endocrine 内分泌 system
Major Lymph, lymph nodes 淋巴结, Pituitary glands, thyroid Eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
organs lymph vessels, bone marrow gland, adrenal gland 肾上腺, skin
骨髓, thymus 胸腺 pancreas 胰岛
Main  Defends 保护 body against Produce hormones 激素  Detects changes in
functions infections that controls the body’s external stimuli
 Returns tissue fluid 组织液 activities.
to the body

All systems combine to form a multicellular organism. The functions of these systems must be coordinated
for the organism to survive. For instance, the nutrients which are absorbed by the digestive system and the
oxygen which is obtained by the respiratory system are transported by the blood circulatory system to all
parts of the body.

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Organs and Systems in Plants
1. Plants organs includes leaves, stems, roots, flowers and buds. Plants have fewer organs as
compared to animals.
2. Leaves produce food; flowers and fruits are for sexual reproduction; stems are for support,
transportation and storage; roots absorb and transport water and minerals, support the plant and
store food.
3. Flowering plants (angiosperms 被子植物 ) consists of two main system: the root system 根系统
and the shoot system.芽系统
4. The shoot system is above the ground and includes the stems, leaves, flowers and fruits.
5. The root system includes those parts of the plant below the ground, such as roots, tubers 块茎
and rhizomes 根茎 . This system achor the plant to the ground for support and absorbs water and
mineral salts from the soil.

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