AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the addition of gaseous, liquid, or solid

chemicals/substances in the air in quantities and duration that are
harmful to human health and the environment. It occurs when the
concentration of certain substances become high enough to cause the
atmospheric environment to become toxic.

Every human being inhales about 20 kg of air daily.

 Sources of air pollution
• NATURAL
• ANTHROPOGENIC
 Natural sources
• Volcanic eruptions emit toxic gases
and particulate matter.
• Wildfires/forest fires (add carbon
monoxide)
• Microbial decay releases methane
and other gases.
• Emissions from Marshy lands
• High temperatures increase the
amounts of contaminants volatilizing
from polluted soil and water.
 Anthropogenic sources
• Deforestation activities
• Combustion activities
• Vehicular Emission
• Emission from Industries
• Bio-mass burning
• Use of pesticides, insecticides in
agriculture
• Ceremonial burnings:
Frequent ceremonial burnings
increase carbon levels in the
atmosphere

• Firecrackers:
Firecrackers emit toxic
substances in the atmosphere
which are not measured in
routine pollution checks like
mercury, lead and aluminum.
 Types of Air Pollutants
• PRIMARY: Products of natural events (like fires, volcanic
eruptions etc) and human activities added directly to air.
Eg., CO, NOX, SOX, particulates and hydrocarbons.

• SECONDARY: Formed by interaction of primary

pollutants with each other or with normal components
of air. Eg., ozone, photochemical smog etc.
 1. Carbon Monoxide
SOURCES:
• Incomplete combustion of fuels
• Automobile exhausts (accounts to ~70% of CO in atmosphere)
• Industrial operations
• Forest fires
• Volcanic eruptions
• Marsh gas emissions
SINKS:
➢Micro-organisms in soil convert CO to CO2
EFFECTS: CO interferes with oxygen carrying capacity of blood to
carry oxygen to different parts of body.
Hb + O2 HbO2 (Oxyhaemoglobin)
If large amount of CO is present in sorroundings is inhaled, it
combines with haemoglobin to form
Hb + CO HbCO (Carboxyhaemoglobin)
Symptoms-laziness, exhaustion, headache. Acute shortage of oxygen
can lead to coma and death (asphyxiation).
Permissible Concentrations in ambient air: 40 ppm for an exposure
of 6-8 hours.
Congested Red lights: more than 100 ppm
Cigarette smoke: 400 ppm
CONTROL: Transportation sector accounts for 70-80% global
emissions, specially gasoline-fed internal combustion engines
• Modification of Engine design: Right proportion of oxygen to be
maintained for complete oxidation of C and H to CO2 and H2O
respectively.
• Fuel modification: Fuels which release lesser amounts of CO to be
used eg., Natural gas, methane and blends of light hydrocarbons.
• Treatment of exhaust gases: Two stage catalytic convertors to be
used. In first stage, NOx are reduced to N2 and NH3 in presence of
catalyst Pt, Pd etc in presence of reducing gas such as CO. In second
stage, catalysts of noble metals Pt, Ru etc. in presence of air which
provides oxidising environment, supported on ceramic materials are
used, which ensure oxidation of CO to CO2.
• Use of pollution free power: solar and wind energy, Bio-fuels
 2. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
• Number of oxides of Nitrogen are introduced in atmosphere: NO, N2O, NO2, N2O3, out
of these NO & NO2 are responsible for pollution, represented as NOx.
• NO2 is reddish brown in colour with pungent smell and is suffocating, NO is colourless
and odourless gas.
SOURCES:
Natural: During lightening discharge, N2 and O2 in air combine to form NO
• NOx is also formed by the fixation of N from atmosphere or from nitrogen compounds
present in organic matter (Bacterial decay of organic matter)
Man-made sources: Combustion of fossil fuels
N2 + O2 2NO, Temperature 1200 – 17500C
2NO + O2 2NO2 , Temperature 11000C
Though first reaction is reversible but rapid cooling of combustion product prevents the
dissociation of NO. Reaction 2 is very slow and formation of NO2 is only 0.5%
• Main reaction for formation of NO2 is reaction with ozone
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
SINK:
• NO and NO2 undergo various photochemical and chemical reactions
in atmosphere leading to formation of HNO3, which gets precipitated
during rainfall. Ozone plays significant role in these reactions.
• NO + O3 NO2 + O2, NO removes ozone naturally in the
atmosphere.
• NO2 + Sunlight (hѵ) NO + O, Nascent oxygen reacts with
oxygen molecule to form ozone. Thus destruction and regeneration
of NO2 is a cyclic process.
• In presence of VOCs, NO2 reacts with water in presence of oxygen to
form nitric acid 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3
• 2NO2 + O3 N2O5 + O2, N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3
EFFECTS
• Almost all NOx emissions are in form of NO, which has no known
adverse health effects at concentrations found in atmosphere
• NO can oxidise to NO2 , which may react with hydrocarbons in
presence of sunlight to form photochemical smog, which is
injurious to health.
• HNO3 formed by NO2 causes acid rain corroding marble and metallic
structures, decreasing the pH of soil and affecting its fertility.
• It is an acute irritant at higher concentrations than normally found.
Prolonged exposure to relatively low concentration, has found to
cause bronchitis in children.
CONTROL OF NOX
• Modifying the engine design: Burners are so modified that fuel and
air mix more slowly reducing the intensity and temperature of
combustion.
• Scrubbing the flue gases: with H2SO4
NO2 + NO N2O3
N2O3 + H2SO4 2NOHSO4 + H2O
2NOHSO4 + 1/2O2 2H2SO4 + NO2
NO2 + H2O HNO3 + NO
Excess NO and NO2 are circulated through the scrubber.
• Selective catalytic reduction: Two stage, same as discussed for CO
 3. Oxides of Sulphur (SOx)
• SO2 and SO3, colourless gases with pungent smell, represented as
SOx. SO2 is second most important contributor to air pollution.
SOURCES
SINKS
• The sulphur dioxide released in the atmosphere is converted to SO3
by photolytic and catalytic processes involving ozone
SO2+ O3 2SO3
• Sulphur oxides combine with water vapour to produce H2SO4
aerosol which give rise to “acid-rain” droplets
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
• H2SO4 combines with lime-stone minerals and thus removed from
atmosphere. Lime-stone minerals act as a sink for SO2
EFFECTS
• SO2 and SO3 are strong irritants to the respiratory tract. SO2 is water
soluble, thus is absorbed in the upper respiratory tract.
• If alongwith SO2, particulate matter in air is also present, the
combination becomes detrimental to human health. Could cause
chronic bronchitis.
• Plants exposed to SO2 even at low concentration (0.03 ppm) for a
few weeks, the formation of chlorophyll is slowed down resulting in
loss of green colour of leaf, It is called chlorosis.
• Prolonged exposure causes serious damage to buildings, marble,
lime stone. CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
• CaSO4 being water soluble washes away, leaving pitted surface.
CONTROL OF SOX
• Removal of S from fuel (coal) before burning
• Use of fuels having low content of sulphur
• By removing SO2 from exhaust gases by using chemical scrubbers
(i)Lime Stone:
2CaCO3 + 2SO2 + O2 2CaSO4 + CO2
CaCO3 + SO3 CaSO4 + CO2
• The flue gases are passed through the slurry of CaCO3 which reacts with
SO2 and SO3 to form CaSO4 (disposal is a problem)
(ii) Citric acid:
2SO2 + H2O HSO3- + H+
HSO3- + H2Cit- [HSO3- .H2Cit- ]2-
[HSO3- .H2Cit- ]2- + H+ + H2S 2S + H2Cit- + 3H2O
• H2S is passed through solution containing citrate ion and Sulphur is
precipitated out and citrate ions are regenerated to be used again.
 4. Particulates
• It is the dispersed matter, solid or liquid in air.
• Important characteristics of particulates are:
➢Size: ranges from diameter of 0.002 µm to 500 µm.
➢Concentration: from few hundred per cm3 in clean air to
105 per cm3 in polluted air.
SOURCES
Natural: volcanic eruption, wind and dust storms etc
Man-made: burning of wood, coal, oil and gaseous fuels, industrial
processes, smelting and mining operations.
COMPOSITION: It could be either organic or inorganic.
• Organic particulates arise from automobile exhausts, combustion
of fuels. Organic particulates contain polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) which are carcinogenic.
• Inorganic particulates include iron oxide, calcium oxide from
combustion of coal and metallurgical operations, Lead halides
from automobile exhausts, asbestos dust from industrial
processes.
• Aerosol mists are formed from oxidation of SO2 to SO3 and to
form H2SO4 in presence of water. Cd, As, Hg also contribute to
particulate matter
Harmful effects on materials:
• Fumes, dust, soot, mists and aerosols can damage soil, buildings,
sculpture and monuments
• Corrosive particulates accelerates corrosion of the materials
• Smoke particles stick on every surface of material, forming a film
of soot
Effects on climate:
• Maintain radiation balance and heat balance of earth.
• Provide nuclei for condensation of water vapour
• Absorb free radicals, thereby acting as inhibitors for free radical
chain reactions.
CONTROL OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
• Gravity Settling Chamber: Removes large particulates (> 50 µm)
from the gaseous effluents. Velocity of the horizontal carrier gas is
reduced adequately so that particles settle by gravitational force.
Cyclonic Separators: Gas containing particulates is allowed to flow into
a tight circular spiral-fitted chamber.
Now particulates possess
greater inertia than the gas
molecules and experience
greater centrifugal force. This
drive these particulates towards
the wall of chamber. From
there they settle down due to
force of gravity. Efficient for
removal of large particles (5-20
µm). More efficient because
centrifugal force is much
greater than force of gravity.
Electrostatic precipitators:
• Used in power plants, paper and
pulp industries, chemical
industries, iron and steel plants.
• Consists of series of grounded thin
plates charged to high voltages
alternately + and -. Particles
approaching these plates (around
50,000 V) become charged and are
attracted towards opposite plates.
From these plates they fall into a
collector. Efficiency of precipitator
is very high, it is capable of
cleaning 150,000 litres of gas per
minute at 6000C .
Wet Scrubbers:
• Exhaust gases are passed through a fine spring of water so that
effective size of particle is increased due to the formation of water
particulate agglomerates. These are then separated from gas
stream by any collection mechanism(concept of wet precipitation)

Fabric Filters:
• Exhaust gases are forced through bags of very fine cloth-like mesh ,
capable of retaining small particles. Used in industries dealing with
rock products, pigments etc.
 5. Hydrocarbons
Sources:
• Natural sources- Methane is naturally occurring hydrocarbon
emitted in atmosphere produced by anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter in the soil, water and sediments.
• Organic matter CH4 + CO2 in presence of bacteria
• Man-made sources include Automobile exhausts, evaporation of
organic solvents
• Rice cultivation-Paddy fields emit methane in the atmosphere.
India emits 4 Tg methane in the atmosphere.
• Ruminants belch out lot of CH4 daily.
SINKS: Hydrocarbons, being thermodynamically unstable tend to get
oxidized in the atmosphere by a series of chemical and
photochemical reactions. This given rise to the formation of
various end products such as CO2, solid organic particulates and
water soluble acids. The solid organic particulates settle down and
water soluble acids are washed down by rain.
EFFECTS
• At high concentrations hydrocarbons have carcinogenic effect on lungs.
• Inhalation of benzene, toluene etc. cause irritation in the mucus membrane.
• They are responsible for the formation of photochemical smog
• Methane causes narcotic effect on human beings.
• Acetylene and propylene at 50 – 500 ppm show toxicity towards plants,
damaging their growth.
• Benzpyrine present in tobacco, charcoal etc. induces cancer.
CONTROL
• The hydrocarbons from vehicular emissions are controlled by the
techniques such as incineration, adsorption and absorption.
• Adsorption is carried on a bed of carbon or by passing exhaust
gases through a liquid in which hydrocarbons will dissolve or
become suspended. Incineration of ‘after burning’ completes the
oxidation of hydrocarbons to CO2 and H2O.
• Loss of Hydrocarbons by evaporation from fuel tanks and
carburettor is reduced by installation of a connection system
which eventually returns them to the fuel induction system.
 What Is Smog ?
Smog is a form of air pollution. It is a mixture of smoke and fog. This
kind of visible air pollution is composed of Nitrogen oxides, Sulphur
oxides, Ozone, smoke or particulates, less visible pollutants include
carbon monoxide, CFCs and radioactive sources.
 Photochemical Smog Formation
The atmospheric
pollutants or gases that
form smog are released in
the air when fuels are
burnt. When sunlight and
its heat (~180C) react with
nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons in the
atmosphere, smog is
formed.
Chemistry of Photochemical Smog
 2
2

Peroxy Acyl radical

 Reducing Smog (Classical smog)
• Formed due to presence of SO2 and humidity in air
which combine to form H2SO4 droplets which deposit on
particulates
• Formed during winter months particularly in morning
hours when temperature is low. After sunrise it
increases due to oxidation of SO2 to SO3 and further
forming H2SO4 aerosols.
• First observed in London in 1952, thus also known as
London smog
 CARBON DIOXIDE SEQUESTRATION
Carbon sequestration refers to the provision of long-
term storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere,
underground, or oceans, to reduce the buildup of
carbon dioxide (the principal greenhouse gas)
concentration in the atmosphere. This is accomplished
by maintaining and enhancing natural processes, or the
development of new techniques to dispose off carbon.
The main natural sinks are
(i) Oceans which take up one third of anthropogenic
emissions of CO2,
(ii) plants and other organisms that use photosynthesis to
remove carbon from the atmosphere by incorporating it
into biomass and release oxygen into the atmosphere, and
(iii) soils which contain more organic carbon than is
contained in vegetation and atmosphere together.
Enhancing Natural Sequestration
• Reforestation activities.
• In the oceans, micrometer-sized iron particles in the form of hematite
(iron oxide) or melantrite (iron sulphate) are added to water to increase
the carbon sequestration efficiency. Addition of iron particles stimulate
growth of phytoplankton, which in turn remove significant quantities of
CO2 from the atmosphere via photosynthesis. However, phytoplankton
have a complex effect on cloud formation via the release of dimethyl
sulfide (DMS) that is converted to sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere,
providing cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). But the effect of small scale
Plankton blooms on overall production of DMS is still unknown.
• Conversion to pastureland with good management of grazing, can also
increase carbon sequestration in soils.
• In soil, no-till farming and crop rotation methods are used to
significantly enhance carbon sequestration.
Artificial Sequestration
It can be passively stored and remain productively
unutilized over time in following ways:
• In the oceans the carbon dioxide is directly pumped into
the water at depth and is expected to form lakes of liquid
CO2 at the bottom. However, this method could have
dangerous consequences. The CO2 could react with water
to form carbonic acid, although most (as much as 99%)
remains as dissolved molecular CO2.
• The method of geo-sequestration or geological storage
involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground
geological formations. Declining oil fields, saline aquifers,
and unminable coal seams have been suggested as storage
sites. Caverns and oil mines that are commonly used to
store natural gas are not considered, because of lack of
storage safety.
• Bio-sequestration of CO2 involves plantation of biodiesel
crops such as Jatropha Curcas, switch grass and corn plants
etc.
 Carbon Credits
• The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCC) was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997
and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
• According to Kyoto protocol the levels of six green house gases (Carbon
dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs), Perfluoro
carbons (PFCs), Sulfur Hexaflouride (SF6) be brought down to 1990 levels.
• CO2 and other related green house gases are being considered for the
carbon trading under Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in the stock
exchanges.
• CDM is an arrangement under Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialized
countries (Annex I) with green house gas reduction commitment to invest
in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative
to more expensive emission reduction in their own countries.
• An industrialized country that wishes to get credits from a CDM
project must obtain the consent of the developing country
hosting the project that it will contribute to sustainable
development.
• The project is then submitted to CDM Executive Board for
approval. Once the project is approved and registered, the
CDM Executive board issues credits called Certified Emission
Reduction (CERs) commonly know as CARBON CREDITS where
each unit is equivalent to the reduction of one metric tonne
of CO2 to the project participants.
 It is project-based mechanism, some examples are:
- CDM credits may be generated from emission reduction projects or from
afforestation and reforestation projects in non-Annex I countries.
- For example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the
installation of more energy-efficient boilers.

Merits of Carbon Credits

• This allows the total quantum of emissions to be controlled without having
to micromanage emissions by each firm.
• Instead of planning significant operational changes, businesses can offset
their carbon usage by merely buying credits.
• This concept penalizes the party polluting the environment by making it pay
for the credit while the seller is rewarded monetarily.
Demerits of Carbon Credits
• It does not represent an actual reduction of carbon emissions by
the individual or business.
• Small businesses may find it more challenging to acquire these
credits than larger businesses with more generous operating
budgets. Not only is obtaining credits more difficult on the
budget, but small businesses also may also have fewer resources
available to make changes that will reduce their carbon
footprint.
• Instead of policies that reduce emission, strict regulations, and
penalties for polluters, this trading provides elaborate get out
clauses for the biggest polluters.
• Carbon trading is a new form of colonialism where the developed
countries would continue to pollute the atmosphere by buying
the credits from the developing countries.
 Greenhouse effect
GREENHOUSE EFFECT , the capacity of certain gases in
the atmosphere to trap heat emitted from the Earth’s
surface, thereby insulating and warming the planet.
The greenhouse effect has warmed Earth for over four
billion years. Scientists are growing increasingly
concerned that human activities may be modifying the
natural process, with potentially increasing dangerous
consequences.
 PROCESS OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Solar radiation reaches the Earth’s atmosphere – some of this
is reflected back into space.
• The rest of the sun’s energy is absorbed by the land and the
oceans , heating the Earth.
• Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
• Some of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere keeping the Earth warm enough to sustain life.
• Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and
land clearing are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere.
• This is trapping extra heat and causing the Earth’s temperature
to rise.
Greenhouse gases in the Atmosphere
CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
We have not inherited the earth
from our ancestors,we have
borrowed it from our children

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