Increasing the Extraction of Oil by Water Flooding

Ih JOSEPH B. UMPLEBY, * BRADFORD, PA.

biTl·:REST attaches to water flooding as a means of increasing the

extraction of oil because of its remarkable success in the Bradford field
in the northwest part of Pennsylvania, and the possibility of application
in other localities.
The constantly increasing demand for petroleum products and the
increasing difficulty of finding new oil fields is directing serious attention
to the oil left in the ground at the time when wells producing by normal
methods have approached their economic limit. In Germany mining
operations have proved that production by wells over a period of 50 to
75 years has only recovered from 13 to 15 per cent. of the oil in the sand.
In the Bradford field of Pennsylvania it is fairly well established that
normal production over a period of 50 years recovered only about 3000
bbL an acre out of a total oil content of at least 30,000 bbl. Similarly
for many other fields it is estimated that recovery by usual methods
runs from 10 to 40 per cent. of the oil content of the sand. In exceptional
cases recovery may be higher, as in areas where edge water encroaches
rapidly or in open sands where gas pressure is unusually high and con-
served by slow development. This unrecovered oil constitutes a tre-
mendous reserve of petroleum in areas where conditions of drilling, sand,
and water are well known, and where the facilities for gathering and
marketing the production are already established.
The means of recovering a portion of the oil remaining in old fields
falls into three principal groups-mining, air flooding and water flooding.
Mining is being successfully carried on in two fields in Germany, air
flooding has been found profitable in about 15 localities in the United
States, and water flooding is a proven success in the Bradford field of
Pennsylvania and the Bolivar field of New York. Only water flooding
will be considered in this paper which is devoted primarily to what is
actually being done in the Bradford field and the technique that
RurroundR it.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to Case, Pomeroy & Co., 60 Beaver St., New
York, for generous permission to publish a part of the results of extensive
* Prl'sirlent, Petroleum Reclamation Co.
112
 ·JOSJ<a'n n. UMl'LJ<;llY 113

studies financed by them in the Bradford and Bolivar fields. During

the investigation and subsequently, Jerry B. Newby, L. B. Holland,
Norman Meland, Joseph E. Pogue and Chester W. Washburne partici-
pated in the work. Among the many operators in the field who made
their records available, particular thanks is due the Forest Oil Co., the
Kendall Refining Co. and the Associated Producers Co.

HISTORY OF THE FIELD

The Bradford field, discovered in 1869 and reaching the apex of its
production in 1881, has yielded over 250,000,000 bb1. of oil from approxi-
mately 102,000 acres. At present there are about 35,000 producing wells
in the field, some of which were drilled prior to 1880. Wells remote
from water floods, now average about ~§ bb1. a day. Natural wells
now have an initial production of less than 2 bb1. a day (Fig. 1).
8
/' Inifti:r/ Pr()dlldio1_
1 1\
o-fWl'IIs
/'
:n 1O
<S
Cl 5
~4
1\
\ ~
~ 3
cD
~ 2 --~
'---

I
30 ,p'Prodllcfioff o-flrlldp O/~_
oJ')
PrllJvcfiol7 ofCr,./d" ,
\ In P~nn$!//IIt1!71i:t
l' 25 O,11i? flip BradfOrd : '\\ I / \
\
a3 20 F/p!d : " /

b 15
I
•
' I
I
r ,
1/ \ '''\
JD \
- --
oJ')
-~
~ 10 ,
--
FIG.
::::::! 5
0\B50 1860
~~
_J

1810
- jI
I

1880
1\
1890
..... f--..

l.-INITIAL PRODUCTION OF WELLS FOR CERTAIN YEARS AND ANNUAL OU'rI'UT

1900 - 1910
-~

1920
L--
1930

OF BRADFORD FIELD AND STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA (AFTER PENNSYLVANIA GEOLOGICAL

SURVEY).

The first flooding in the field probably occurred about 30 years ago
but the introduction of water was not legalized by the General Assembly
of the State until 1920.
For many years flooding was haphazard, water being let into a central
well and allowed to extend gradually outward as an expanding circle.
During recent years, however, largely through the initiative of Forest
Dorn, president of the Forest Oil Co., it has been systematized and much
better results obtained. Up to 7500 bbl. an acre is now being recovered
in a period of three years, in addition to the 3000 bb1. an acre during a
period of 50 years by normal methods.
114 INCREASING THE EXTRACTION OF OIL BY WATER FLOODING

GEOLOGY

Topography.--The Bradford area lies within the Allegheny plateau

near its northern end. Elevations range from about 1440 ft. along the
lower valley of Tuna Creek to more than 2200 ft. along the divides.
Steep-wooded slopes are characteristic of the area, representing perhaps
two-thirds of its extent and separating narrow valleys from even narrower
divides. The mean annual precipitation is approximately 42 in. and is
well distributed throughout the year.
Rock Formations of the Area.-The rock formations of the area are of
Devonian age partly covered by Carboniferous conglomerate. The
former extends well below the producing horizon and consists of shales
and sandy shales enclosing various lenticular sand bodies, one of which
known as the Bradford, or Third sand, persists over wide areas. This
sand has been assigned to the Middle Chemung group of the Devonian.
In surface exposures shales and sandy shales predominate. A few out-
crops of cross-bedded shaley sandstone occur and locally there are ledges
of massive sandstone. There is almost no limestone in the series.
Structure of the Area.-Structurally the Bradford area lies in the transi-
tion zone between the closely-folded rocks of the central Appalachians
and the comparatively flat-lying beds of Ohio. The producing structure
comprises a large anticline plunging southward and probably open to the
northeast. Details of the structure have not been worked satisfactorily
from the surface as the area is so deeply weathered in most places that
rock exposures are few and persist for only short distances. In deter-
mining sub-surface structure, elevations on the top of the Bradford sand
are used. The highest observed point in productive territory is 574 ft.
above sea level in the northeast part of the field. From this point the
Bradford sand slopes south 254 ft. in 2H miles and northwest 66 ft. in
3.H miles. In most of the central area the sand elevation is from 400 to
450 ft. above sea level but southward it drops off to 170 ft. near the limits
of production.
The structure is asymetrical with dips of from 10 to 20 ft. to the mile
on the northwest and from 50 to 100 ft. to the mile on the southeast.
Southward it divides into two limbs separated by a trough that heads
about four miles southeast of Bradford. In places small domes and
anticlines break the even contour of the general surface.
Character of the Producing Sands.-In the early history of the field a
number of productive sands were found; the most widespread were given
names but only the Third, or Bradford, sand is at present of economic
importance. From 250 to 375 ft. above the Bradford sand is the second
sand which ranges from 10 to 90 ft. in thickness, averaging perhaps 20
ft. From 400 to 500 ft. above the Bradford is the Chipmunk, a sand
only locally developed. Above this in the south end of the field is the
 ·JOSEPH B. UMPLEBY 11.5
Watsonville sand and above this, at a distance of from 500 to 600 ft.
above the Bradford, is the first sand, ranging from 5 to 65 ft. in thickness ,
averaging perhaps 20 ft. Below the Bradford sand and locally grading
into it is the fourth or Windfall sand. From 255 to 310 ft. below the
Bradford is the Kane sand, developed in the eastern and southern part of
the field and in some places a source of gas. The Haskell sand lies from
400 to 450 ft. below the Bradford, averages 10 or 12 ft. in thickness, and
locally is a source of gas in the southern part of the field.
BRYNER-JA O(SON CORE No.1
o- Lrim?

i lilcalcareous shale andlime

Sand harof, no oil
'Sha!£> andlti-n£>
12'.5~~~

Brt7ldford. sand, chocolaf?

p ..........; ..... • .. 1 brown, 0/1

Sand
On fhl? leff offhe &Ier corp No.!
are shown defermmaflons of
. .. .. Shale fhe porosify made by)l PMekher
40- . '. . ' . ".:: '. Sand as before ofIhl!' US. Geo/.,survey. He ha 5
':"::":":":~.shal£> exammedfourcores from fh<?
Sand as before Bradford 'Held (mel concludes

III-ti
!hOff fhe clVeraqeporosify 15
shak.'
·Sand CIS beforl!' befween 15cmd/9percenf.
Shale This fogefher wJfh otTe carl?
Sand OfS bl?fore taken t'n a flooded ouf drec:t,

I'~~~Shal'i'
leads hIm fo bel/eve fhat
i: SatTe;( as before approx imalel!f 3q 000 barrels

Go-I'! ' I' :'~ ' I': I' :I' ' !!f
an acre IS leFf In f"egrDund
asbeforf? offer floodt"ng.

... S(md Clsbekre 0'______ 8'

~======~ 16' ______
24'
64- -~- Shale

F,G. 2.-DIAMOND DRIU. COltES OF BRADFORD SAND FHOM BRADFOHD OIL FIEI.D.
PENNSYLVANIA. DESCRIPTION OF BRYN~,u-JACKSON COUg No.1 BY L. S. PANyITY.
TYI,~'R CORE IS NOT COMPLETE.

The impor·tant oil-producing sand of the field is the third or Bradford

sand. It is readily identified by its rich brown color and average thick-
ness of 40 or 45 ft. Overlying it is a rather soft pure slate and at the
top of the sand in most places is a layer of very hard, grayish, limey sh8Je
known as "the shell." Reports written at the time the field was active
describes the sand as uniform throughout, but an inspection of Fig. 2
clearly shows that this is erroneous. In texture the Bradford sand is
11 () I:\('HEARJN"C; THE EXTRACTION OF OIL BY WATEH FLOOOING

n~llIarkably lilil'. til!' a\"l·I'a.~(' graiu hl'illg ahout. oll('-half UH' diallll'(,(')' of
the average grain of the Bartle~ville ~and of the ('uRhing pool or the
Hickman sand of Burbank. Locally there is a small amount of
calcareous cement but the unusual hardness of the sand iR due principally
to silicious cementing material.
In general the sands above the Bradford are lil!:hter in color, coarser
in grain and are softer. The Chipmunk, however, is a dark-brown sand
resemblinl!: the Bradford. It is the only one of the upper beds thatis
still productive and its output is very small. The sands beneath the
Bradford at present are locally sources of I!:as.
033
BREESE AND LARI1IN FLOOD

39
o

Confour j,"nt?s 027

snow waferf'ronfas
of'dc:rft?s indicafed
40-NewWell
o 0 03G

0" Iqo" '290" 300"

FIG. 3.-DIAGRAM SHOWING UNEQUAL RATE OF WATER MIGRATION IN DIFFERENT

DIRECTIONS.

'VATlm SUPPLY FOn FLOODINn

The water supply for flooding consists of rain waters stored in a zone
extending from the surface to an averal!:e depth of possibly 300 ft. There
is no distinct water-bearing sand, the water zone following surface
topography although somewhat less accentuated. The available sup-
ply, therefore, consists of the water already stored in the ground plus
annual accretions from the local rainfall. In humid areas, similar to
the Bradford region, approximately 40 per cent. of the rainfall joins the
ground water circulation but if this amount be reduced to 1 ft. of water
 JO::;};PH ll. UMPL};llY 117
per year there is an annual increment of approximately 7700 bbl. an
acre or three-fourths of the ultimate combined output of oil by natural
production plus flooding. In general, therefore, there can be no short-
age of water for flooding although locally ·summit wells have a meager
supply during the late summer.

M};THODS OF ApPLYING WATER

Several variations in the method of applying water to the sand have

been tried, the most common being· the" circle" flood. In this method
water is let into a central well and Qil wells are drilled in successively
larger circles around it. Another type is the" line" flood which: consists
of a central line of water wells with rows of oil wells staggered on either
side. A third type is called the "boundary" flood in which an operator
drills water wells and oil wells alternately along his property lines, later
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o 0 0 9-_~...
.... '
0 o 0
o 0 0 ~'05'9 o 0
o 0 0
'.¢./
" ' 0 o 0
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o 0 o 0 0 0
;;WtTferLiT7e
o 0 o v 0 0 0
"0< Sa 40 3G\ 201 Ia I b '2 b 3b 4b 5b rob
Lines of Oil Wl2l1s
FIG. 4.-PAT'l'ERN OF LINE FLOOD WELLS ACCORDING TO FOREST OIL CO. SYSTEM AND
SPACING.
The above plan provides for approximately two wells to the acre. The arrange-
ment is such that the water drive from two intake wells converge on each oil well.
Two rows of oil wells are drilled each year, one on each side of the water line, and as
these go to water they are converted to water wells (dumped). The life of oil wells is
approximately 30 months and two, sometimes three, lines produce simultaneously on
each side of a water line.

drilling successive rows of oil wells within the interior of the tract.
In each of the above methods as oil wells are watered o·ut by encroaching
floods they are converted into water wells and outlying locations are
drilled for oil. A fourth type of flood may be designated as the" five-
spot" or "intensive" flood and consists in simultaneously drilling alter-
nate rOWf; of water wells and oil wells staggered with respect to each
other. In this way each oil well is in the center of a square of four water
118 INCREASING THE EXTRACTION OF OIL BY WATER FLOODING

wells. The more common types are the circle flood shown in Fig. 3
and the line flood shown in Fig. 4.
It is noteworthy that in the circle flood the force is a dissipating one
and it is impossible to maintain an even spacing of wells as the water
advances. In the line flood, on the other hand, the water from two
intake wells converges on an oil well and it is possible to maintain an
even pattern of wells across an entire property. The essentials of good
flooding practice are: (1) To allow for different rates of water migration
in different layers of the sand in the same locality; (2) for different rates
of travel in different directions in the same locality; (3) for different rates

. '.

II
I 64"/"-13 # Cas!l1g'
.
I
I
I
I

Boffom ofGrol!l7d Wafer

I"
I ·Over.siz~ 6/.4 hoff?
I fa fh /5 point :1 I
I ~il

I
I
I
I

ciij .; i"i,:¥~Ai8';"'i..<i
II ;'
I i 15 Pock€'f
&:'<'.":;'.>
12:". 9p'e~ ~ollpl!l1gs
~
Rf?sfs on BoHom

OIL WELL WATER WELL

NOTE: AI! ma-f"ri~/ 15 rpcovf'rt?d Fr.om.:o: wClff'r Wf?1I
excppf40 1 ofcasing', fhe drIVe> pIp@, fhe> R & L.
Thread couplt'ng' and thl? ptfckr?rs usutfl(y
forn in pufl/ng'
FIG. 5.-SKETCHES SHOWING WELL EQUIPMENT.

of travel in different localities; (4) to have as close control as possible

of the configuration of the water front; (5) to avoid the trapping of oil;
(6) to deliver an adequate supply of water to the water-oil contact at
all points and at all times; (7) to recover the greatest amount of oil
possible commensurate with the cost of development and property;
(8) to deplete a property in reasonable time, and (9) to call for as small
initial expenditure as possible.
 JOSEPH B. UMPLEBY 119

The details of well equipment are subject to some variations but the
accompanying sketch, Fig. 5, shows what is considered the best practice.
RATE OF WATER MIGRATION

The rate of water migration determines the time for depletion and
in large measure the spacing of wells. Consequently it deserves
special consideration.
In order to determine the rate of water movement it is necessary to
know the date that water was turned into a particular well, the date that
its effect first became apparent on another well situated at a known
dis~ance, the date that water reached the second well and the date at
which the ratio of water to oil in its production had reached the economic
limit. Comparatively few of the operators at Bradford have kept

detailed records so that the amount of information available IS com-

paratively meager. However, approximately 50 such pairs of wells,
widely distributed over the field were studied with the results shown in
Fig. 6. This figure comprises a probability chart, each cross indicating
one instance of a particular value. The upper part of the chart shows
the rate of water migration per month to the first appearance of water.
The lower part of the chart shows the rate of water migration to the time
when the ratio of oil to water is approximately as 1 to 30. It is note-
worthy that there are two distinct rates of movement which are inter.:
preted as 6 ft. a month through the more easily traversed layer or layers
of the sand and 4 ft. a month through the more difficultly traversed
layer or layers. In later discussions an average rate of 72 ft. a year to
the first show of water and of 48 ft. a year to the economic limit is accepted
as the most probable rate of movement.
120 INCREARINn THE EXTRACTION OF OIL BY WATER FL()()DI:"I<l

Clwructer Of Wllter III iyratiun.·--N ot, a great. deal i:-; known (".ouet'rnilll
the nature of the water movement in the sand. In an effort to ascertail
some of its characteristics the rate of movement in feet per month wa:
plotted against the depth of wells in hundreds of feet. The depth of ar
intake well is roughly a measure of the water head because in mos'
cases the sand takes only a part of the water available. If the movemen1
is due to hydrostatic phenomena, the data shown on Fig. 7 should grour

2I
• • •
i .; I
-t 20
~ 19
i
't
• I
~ 18 LEGENO
~11 • =Rafe to Abandonmfflf
o :: Rafe fo Firsf Wafer
1",'
1(0 i I

~I 5 • 0 !
+-
I
'b 14 ,, ; I
0<0
10" VQ

=t 13 ... 1 0

~ 12
1
I \ "2. 7> 4
co I~ 0
0

5 ro 1 S 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 1(0 11 18 19 20 21
0
.1 !O i
i
!
--+-1+-
Rote of Woter Movement) feQt PQr month
FIG. 7.-RELATION OF WATER MOVEMENT TO D1';PTH Of' PRESRtTRE WELLA.

14 ,
LEGEND
IH
0 1
.c 22 ,
~20 • =I?tlfe fo Abtll7<:lonmenf
HRa-kfo Frsf W&rfer,
!
!
.~I 8
0- 0
t-~-
,
ot; 110 ,
~ i ,,
cl4
o
+= 12
~
·!r'10
. 0
0

.
i
i
I

· ·. .
0

~ 8
.J!!
,
0
00
0

0
I I Ii
~
. · . .. . . It
00· • 0
0
0 0

0 0
0 0
I
't 4
~
~ '2
·
·· ~.
oo 40 80 1'20 I{'O "l00 "l40 '2S0 3"l0 3bO 400 440 480 S20 5&0 bOO {'40 {'SO 1"l0 7bO 80o
Distance from Flood Wells to Oil Wells
FIG. S.-RELATION OF RATE OF WATER MIGRATION TO DISTANCE TRAVELED.

itself along a curve sloping upward to the right which is clearly not the
case. Similarly, if the phenomena is a hydrostatic one, the rate of
movement should be less between widely-spaced wells than between
wells close together as the former would offer greater frictional resistance.
A further analysis can be made, therefore, by plotting the distance
between particular water wells and the corresponding oil wells against
 .JOsEPII R. rMpLEHY 121

lhe rat.e uf wat.er llJigratiull as 1m:,; been done in Fig. 8. If the phenomena
is a hydroHtatic one this should indicate a curve sloping downward to thc
right which is not the case. The inference drawn from the above
analyses is not fully satisfactory because sand conditions may be different
in different wells. However, there is such a lack of system in the dia-
grams that there is at least a strong probability that capillarity or some
related phenomena is the controlling factor. Experiments are now being
carried on in a way to reduce the number of variables to a minimum and
it is expected that much more will be known concerning the nature of
the water movement within a short time. Tentative conclusions are that
capillarity if; a negative rather than a positive force.

WIDTH OF THE OIL BANK

The oil concentrated in front of the water by flooding is locally

designated the oil bank. Flood wells produce flood oil both before and
after water begins to show in them, making it necessary to recognize
two parts of the oil bank-one free of water and one combining water and
oil. Obviously a correlation should be possible between the two extreme
rates of travel in any particular area of sand, the time elapsing to the
first response to pressure, to first water and to drowning, thereby ascer-
taining the width of the oil bank. If we multiply the interval of time
between the first response to pressure and the first show of water by the
faster rate of travel explained in a preceding section, we have a measure

Pt:trfofbt:tnkwifhoufwt:tfer J
¥,odeSOff.-Mpdit:tI7SSff.-MNI7S17?:
-Orlll';il7 a$ nlliuretl wt'll
E -On7ld /n fronfe'!." ofollnk
L-Onlll'tllinrt't:tro Dim/(
11<i
~ ,,1 ..1 IN!
lXJ IX I)<JXl.X
~2~S~~~~~~~£~~~~~g~2~~~~~~~~
Width, feet .

Pllrfofbanlrmix';wifltwl1fer
- - - -
Mod,e-140ff. Mnl/7-136.9n.
-~ ~

MNtlln·l4Off.
~---

<>
~g~~~~~~~~:a
Widih,fee+
FIG. 9.-ANALYSIS OF DATA ON WIDTH OF OIL BANK.

of the width of the water-free portion of the oil bank. Similarly the
interval of time from the first water to the time of abandonment of the
well, multiplied by the slower rate of water travel previously explained,
gives the width of the economic part of the oil bank in which both water
122 INCREASING THE EXTRACTION OF OIL BY WATER FLOODING

and oil are pnJ8eut. These computatiolls have be<\u lllade fo), every case
where the necessary information is available and an analysis of the data
appears in Fig. 9. It is concluded that the average oil bank is about
200 ft. wide and that the water-free part of it is at least 50 ft. wide.
These conclusions are roughly supported by the average life of flood wells
and by the fact that two rows of oil wells, and locally three, on each side
of a line flood will produce flood oil simultaneously. In calculations for
development work the width of the oil bank is taken as 175 ft., this being
conservative as a wider bank means a longer life for each oil well drilled.
Character of the Oil Bank.-The writer's conception of the oil bank is
shown schematically in Fig. 10. The essential feature is its composite
character, it being made up of a great number of more or less individual
banks each consisting of a zone containing both oil and water separating
a zone of oil only, from a zone of water and some oil. The width of the
water-free part of the bank in any layer may range from perhaps 30 to
90 ft., but its average width as shown by Fig. 9, should be around 50 ft.

Wafer Well Oi/Well

.FIG. lO.-DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING AUTHOR'S CONCEPTION OF OIL BANK.

The water is conceived to move at different rates in different layers of the sand.
There is undoubtedly also movement across the sand strata due to capillary action,
possible joints, and lenses in the sand body. Broadly, however, the oil bank is
conceived as a composite bank made up of a great many more or less distinct and
overlapping individual banks.

Such a conception it is believed accords with observed facts and accounts

for the relation of oil and water in flood wells as shown in Figs. 11 and 12.
It also accords with the records of the sand as shown by diamond drill
cores (see Fig. 2).
Wells near a flood first record the approach of pressure by a slight
increase in gas production followed by increasing amounts of oil until
sometime after water has appeared. It is necessary, therefore, to
conceive the pressure gradient in any individual bank as increasing
backward to the water-oil contact. Thus the writer's conception is of a
multiplicity of layers of slightly different texture and composition within
 JOSBPH H. UMPLBllY 123

any vertical section of the sand and within each layer an oil bank, more
or less separated from banks above and below, these individual banks by
overlap forming a composite bank with characteristics similar to those
of its individual components. Rarely are the rates of movement so
different in different layers that the individual banks become separated
in space.
CHARACTER OF FLOOD VVELLS

Comparatively few operators at Bradford keep individual records of

wells so that although this field of study offers many promising types of
information, the number of records available are comparatively limited.
A total of 95 individual well records were obtained, all of which come
from areas of circle floods. The study of these curves, however, throws
14
13
12 /
,/
1I
/
10
~
WATER- V
;-9 L
~ V
..
':8
~1
~
~ I-
~ ~
"-
/
~ '/
~
()
~6
...
::,
~
I- 0+-
~
Il)

~ 5 ~ ~I- 6 / .....
c.t
,.... .:2 r / .~
4 .....
.~
~
I L """\ ."
3 ~
" OIL 1- «\ ~f(e 'f!rel1CE Poinr <:s
2 -t/a/uraf; "- §
"~

~Producf;on~ _V ....... ~
I
oo 4 I I I
8 \,
.- .......
G 2. ::> 24- 2. 3
.....-. /
3~
V
404
Months
4
--
5 5 o ~O ~ Ii 1 1 80

FIG. H.-COMPOSITE AVERAGE PRODUCTION CURVE FOR CIRCLE FLOOD WELLS. (BIMI-
LAR DATA NOT AVAILABLE FOR LINE FLOOD WELLS.)

considerable light on what takes place in line flood wells as circle floods
approach the characteristics of line floods as the radius increases. In- a
few cases~ also, as floods became larger, wells were dumped simultaneously
contributing a two-way pressure to an oil well much the same as in a line
flood. Two curves of production are presented herewith as illustrating
the more important characteristics. The first, Fig. 11, is a composite
average production curve for circle flood wells. It is noteworthy that
thenatural production is less than 7:4 bbl. a day but that as pressure
becomes effective the production gradually increases to nearly 4 bbl. a
day, thereafter declining much as in the case of a normal production
curve. It is noteworthy also, that the first appearance of water is
nearly always accompanied by a set-back in production; a fact recognized
in forming the conception of the oil bank shown in Fig. 10. Roughly,
the economic limit is reached at a time when the well produces H bbl. of
oil and 15 bbl. of water a day. Although individual well records are not
available for line floods, there is excellent data on the production of
1 - . , - r - - --- I
T-iTT-rTT
Procilfc1ng
""-- Weil-
- J/1937+~
I-- 29 9 2S 9138 ,... :f\.
5- iOrigmt(
- Source
1/
5Ga Ie Q...1QO of"J1/pfer
-
........ "1
~ \ J
'"
~ i.-.. ) V I
~. v
~ OIL~ ~ '" WATER---J
l ltv r
It-
r '-
w. 4~ iR' ~ ~ ..
~
-- ~
~
~
~ /"
~ "/
~
I'~ ~<$ r-- - '" I
o~ t-=-- /"
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..../"

1'2 15
I--
'""
~
l,g
~
n,
~
"21 'l. 21 "30 3:1 310 39 4'l45 48 51 54 51 GO
-~

Month s
FIG. 12.-CURVE SHOWING EFFECT OF DUMPING ADDITIONAL WEI,I.t; ANDI Q{llCK
RESPONSE TO PRESSURE IN WATER-FILLED SAND.

particular lines of wells by months over a period of about two years.

This shows that the monthly average daily production per well may reach
as high as 15 bbl. and that for at least 18 months the average per well
may exceed 5 bbl. The net result of the two-way or line flood is clearly
to increase the output per day and shorten the time required for depletion_

~ode -c4qq. Barrels

lX Mpdie1/1·3000 " r---
lX Mean- 3/39 "
X X
X XX X
lX X X lX XX X
lX X ~ X lX XX ~
X X lX X lX X X X X X X
~ X X lX X lX X ~ X X X X X ~ lX
1'100 1500 1800 '1100 7.40C mo
3000 3300 %OC 4800 5100 !MO 5100 6000
390042004500
Pro~udion in Barrel s
FIG. 13.-ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATE PRODUCTION OF INDIVIDUAL FLOOD WBLLK.

The curve, Fig. 12, is introduced to show the effect of dumping

additional wells, particularly wells adding pressure from a different direc-
tion, and the quick response to added pressure in sand largely filled
with water. . .
 12:)

IllIportaltt. ill Uti" 1"11llH'1~t.i0I1 and abo at' a dlPl'k ou /,)\1' rCI'OVI'T,v lilT
acre di:,;eu:';t'pd Iaj,pr, it' (,)W produef,jol1 n,eorcl of individual well:-;. III
compiling thiR data, future production as determined by individual decline
curves, was added to past production in order to ascertain the ultimatp
output in each case. The results are shown in Fig. 13, which shows a
median recovery per well of 3000 bbl. Further analysis of this diagram
shows a preponderance of high recovery for wells situated on the edge of
large circle floods. As circle floods approach line floods with increasing
size, this is taken to mean that recovery from line flood wells, if data
were available, would group themselves near the righthand end of the
chart. A further check on this is the total production per line flood well
as determined from the average per well for an entire line. In two such
cases where the total output of lines were available, an average production
per well of about 3600 bbl. is indicated.
RECOVERY PER ACRE BY WATER FLOODING

Various statements have been made concerning the recovery per

acre by water flooding in the Bradford field but unless the detailed method
oO//wd/s
. . .J#;rfer wells
oO'Iwells
F,'rs+ Me+hod

oOi/wt?!I.s

4:'('«~~~i.@~~~S>- W"fer wefl.s

00i/wef/5
Sllcond MIl+hod

Third Method
FIG. 14.-THREE METHODS OF ESTIMATING AREA FROM WHICH A KNOWN AMOUNT
OF OIL HAS BEEN DERIVED IN A LINE FLOOD.
The above methods applied to a particular tract gave respectively:
First, 11,350 bbl. an acre recovered.
Second, 7,567 bbl. an acre recovEred.
Third, 4,969 bbl. an acre recovered.
The second method is believed to be most nearly correct for reasons indicated in
Fig. 15.

of arriving at the figure is known they have little definite value. The
total production from many tracts since flooding started is available but
serious difficulty arises in determining the area actually drained. The
largest individual flood known in the field is only 200 acres in extent but
the average size of flooded areas does not exceed perhaps 10 acres. Fig.
14 illustrates three ways in which production from a line flood may be
estimated. The first gives too small an area drained, as most certainly
126 INCREASING THE I~X'rRACTION OF OlL BY WATlm FLOODING

the oil well drain:; from HOUle distance to the :;ide after the pre SHure bank
reaches it. The third is believed to give too large an area, as shown by
the larger size and longer life of the second line oil wells and particularly
by the fact that the wells show response to pressure 15 months before
the first line wells are watered out. The second method is accepted in
calculations as conservative although probably not accurate. Its basis
is more clearly shown in Fig. 15.
Circle floods because of the irregular spacing of wells and their arrange-
ment are not susceptible of similar analysis. Here wells drain the line
connecting them with a central water well, widened to the extent that
pressure gradients rise laterally from the oil wells. But there will be
no side gradient until the water that first shows later on in the well is
50 ft. away, this being the width of the water-free part of the oil bank.

FIG. I5.-DIAGRAM SHOWING AREAS DRAINED BY SUCCESSIVE LINES OF OIL WELLS AND
AREAS I,OST ON LAST LINES DRILLED.

If we conceive the oil bank as made up of a number of individual and

irregularly overlapping banks, it appears that to assume complete
drainage laterally for 50 ft. is conservative. In estimating recovery per
acre from circle floods, therpfore, the area drained is assumed to be
the sum of the area of triangles each with a base 100 ft. long, passing
through an oil well yielding flood production and apexing at the water
well or wells responsible. In most cases it has been necessary to estimate
future production of certain wells from the present and past output, but
in this there is little chance of serious error. The method is shown
in Fig. 16.
The estimates shown in Table 1 are at least consistent one with
another, as all have been made on the basis above described. This gives
 JOSEPH D. UMPLEDY 127
an average production for better territory and better sand thicknesses
in excess of 6000 bbl. an acre.
The ultimate recovery per acre divided by the sand thickness gives
the output per acre-foot. These results appear also in the table. The

49 51
47 o o
o

o
o

0, 1 ,00
,
1 400' 10001

FIG. 16.-NEATH-BoLTON FLOOD. METHOD OF COMPUTING AREA DRAINED IN A

CIRCULAR FLOOD WITH ONE INTAKE WELL.

Estimated area of triangles ........................... . 1O.3A.

Estimated production to date bbl.. .................... . 46,480.09
Estimated future production bbl. . . . . . . . .. . .......... . 4,340.00
Estimated total bbL ................................. . 50,820.09
Estimated ultimate production l>er acre bbl. ............. . 4,934.00
BARRELS
No. 39 ............. . 180
No. 44 ............. . 1,300 (Should equal production of No. 39)
No. 17 ............. . ISO
No. 42 ............. . 300
No. 36 ............. . 180
No. 24 ............. . 1,200 (Average production Nos. 42, 36 and 35)
No. 1. ............. . 1,000 (Arbitrary)
Total. ......... '" 4,340

wide range in values may be due to: (1) unequal saturation of the sand
in different parts of the field, (2) barren layers in the sand, or (3) layers of
different fineness in any particular locality so that the water removes the
oil from some layers more completely than from other layers. A study of
121') INCHEAtiIN(; 'i'IIE I';XTHACTLON OF OIL BY WATEH FLOUI>INU

a great many samples of sand, screw by screw as wells are drilled, leads to
the conclusion that the first and third causes are chiefly responsible.

TABLE I.-Data on Reco/Jery Per Acre by Water Flooding

Property
No.
Thickness of
Sand, Feet
Area Drained,
Acres
I Hecoverya per I Hccovpry per I
Arre, Barrels Acre-foot, Barrels
Type of
Flood

1b 38 18.56 7567 196.5 Line

2b 44.5 2.26 6923 155.fi Line
3 40 5.25 7200 180.0 Line
4b 16 9.70 3426 214.1 Line
5 38 5.00 7500 208.2 Circle
6 40 4.30 6543 163.5 Cirele
7 40 2.78 6616 16.5.4 Cirelc
8 40 13.18 6000 150.0 Cirele
9 54 9.00 55.56 103.0 Circle
10 33 0.66 7548 228.0 Cin'le
11 46 1O.3Q 4934 107.5 Circle
12 31 13.00 4461 143.9 Circle
13 42 2.60 6428 153.0 Cirele
14 55 4.17 4741 86.2 Circlc'
15 33 2.69 5300 160.6 Cil'ele
16 18 136.43 2:H5 l28.6 Cirelc
17 46 3.20 42{i6 !l2.7 Cin·le
18 40 2.32 5.500 137 ..5 Cil'elc

a Based on past production with an estimate of future output of certain wells in

cases where available data permitted the preparation of production curves.
b Property in the Bolivar district.

SUMMARY

Water flooding in the Bradford and Bolivar fields of Pennsylvania

and New York is yielding about twice as much oil as has been produced
by natural methods. It consists in delivering fresh water from a shallow
zone to the oil sand in a central well and gaining increased oil production
from nearby wells. There are several types of flooding, but that known
as line flooding is believed to be the most economical and the most
efficient. Water flooding has been going on to an increasing extent over
a period of about 30 years and the operating technique has been well
established. Its success, however, may hinge on certain capillary
phenomena working within the sand, thus limiting its application else-
where to fields having similar sand texture. Also important in its success
at Bradford, is the low cost of drilling wells and the high price received
for crude. It is by no means certain, however, that under other sand
conditions fewer wells might not give satisfactory results. Even at
Bradford it is believed that there is still much room for improvement in
teehnic}lH'.l\fany experiment.s are under way hatiC'cl on eOI1Ridemtionti
 120

of surface tension, visco~ity and adhesion. It seems likely also that a

comhination of air flooding and water flooding will yield comparable
results at much lower development cost, and to this end two properties
operated hy the Petroleum Reclamation Co. are now being developed by
a combination of air and water. This work although well advanced has
not gone far enough to yield measurable results.
The general conclusion is that water is limited in its field of application
as an economic means of increasing the extraction of oil but it is believed
that there are undoubtedly other fields in the lTnited States where it
can he used as successfully as at Bradford.

BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Therf' is a remarkable dearth of puhlished information on the Bradford

field, no systematic study having been made since the publication of a
report hy the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania in 1880. There are
numerous brief references and short articles in the technical press, particu-
larly in the Oil City Derrick and National Petroleum N eW8. The more
important publications arc listed helow:
C ..\ ..\shll1lrIlpr: Report H. HC('ond Cpologieal Hmvp)' of I'PllIlU. (1880) .
.T. O. L('\\"is: :\Ipthot!s for Im·rmsing niP Hp(,ovP]·.\' from Oil Hands. RII1l.148,
Hlil'. :\Iill('s (l!!li), 02.
It B. 13ossler: Oil Fiplds !{Pjllvenat('(l. Rull. 56, I'a. Bur. of Topography and
Cpo!. Surv. (1022), 14.
G. H. Ashle)' and.J. F. Robinson: Oil and Cas Fields of I'pnnsylvania. I'a. Ceo!.
Hmv., 4th spr. (1!J22), 7!J.
D. H. :\pwland: :\Iincral Resources of the Rtate of ~ew York. ;.Jew York St.ate
:\Ills('um, Bldl. 22:3, 224.
David White and A. F. Melcher: Much Oil Remains in Bradford Sand After
Flooding Procpss. PapPI' before the Northwpst Producers Association. (Reported
in Oil ('it!! Derrick, '\p!'il 20, 1025.)

DISGCSSIO~

R. H . .JOHNSON.-I would like to discuss a legal aspect of this subject.

The laws of the State of Pennsylvania restrict the area in which water-
driving can be done, naming, in fact, certain definite sands that have
limited regional distribution. This limits the experimentation that might
legally be done elsewhere. The water-driving in progress in two other
States is being done quietly because it is illegal. It seems most desirable
that the law should give us an opportunity to experiment in this line, and
not put a hazard on the pioneers in this work.