Intro:

We all eat any kind of food to accomplish two simple things: to obtain the energy. We need to
stay alive and to get the raw materials required for building all of our tissues and stuff. That’s because,
when it comes down to it, both you and the food you eat contain those two same things: Both you and
food are made of “stuff” -- by which I mean, matter, made of certain kinds of atoms -- and both you and
food have energy stored in the bonds between those atoms. So all living things need to take in stuff and
energy, and convert it into slightly different stuff and energy. And you can get some of the things you
need pretty easily. Like, in order to get oxygen for respiration, to unleash the chemical energy in your
food, you just have to inhale. But you can’t just breathe in the stuff you need to build DNA, or actin, or a
phospholipid bilayer. So, how does your body really acquire “stuff”? Every cell of the body requires
nutrients, yet most cells cannot leave their position in the body and travel to a food source. Therefore,
the food must be converted to a usable form and then delivered to the cells. This is the role of the
digestive system with the assistance of the circulatory system, with complex set of organs, glands, and
ducts that work together to transform food into nutrients for cells.

Overall, the digestive system performs six basic processes which are the following:

1. Ingestion. This process involves taking foods and liquids into the mouth (eating).

2. Secretion. Each day, cells within the walls of the GI tract and accessory digestive organs secrete a total
of about 7 liters of water, acid, buffers (regulate the pH in various biological fluids and tissue) and
enzymes (proteins that living things use as catalysts, to speed up chemical reactions) into the lumen
(interior space) of the tract.

3. Motility. Alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle in the walls of the GI tract mix
food and secretions and move them toward the anus. This capability of the GI tract to mix and move
material along its length is called motility.

4. Digestion. Digestion is the process of breaking down ingested food into small molecules that can be
used by body cells. In mechanical digestion the teeth cut and grind food before it is swallowed, and then
smooth muscles of the stomach and small intestine churn the food to further assist the process. As a
result, food molecules become dissolved and thoroughly mixed with digestive enzymes. In chemical
digestion the large carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and nucleic acid molecules in food are split into smaller
molecules by hydrolysis. Digestive enzymes produced by the salivary glands, tongue, stomach, pancreas,
and small intestine catalyze these catabolic reactions.

5. Absorption. The movement of the products of digestion from the lumen of the GI tract into blood or
lymph. Once absorbed, these substances circulate to cells throughout the body. A few substances in
food can be absorbed without undergoing digestion. These include vitamins, ions, cholesterol, and
water.

6. Defecation. Wastes, indigestible substances, bacteria, cells sloughed from the lining of the GI tract,
and digested materials that were not absorbed in their journey through the digestive tract leave the
body through the anus in a process called defecation (def-eKA --shun). The eliminated material is
termed feces (FE --sēz) or stool.
On this picture, you can see the food is ingested through the mouth, and as it travels inside the GI tract,
glands within the walls secretes and is then mixed with the food which is then moved along its length by
alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle which is called motility. Then food particles
are then broken down into smaller molecule by the help of enzyme to break down the large molecules
in your food into the building blocks that your cells can actually absorb. so that is digestion, and these
smaller molecules are moved into blood or lymph and is circulated to cells throughout the body and
lastly, the indigestible substances or waste is then ejected through anus in which what we call as
defecation.

SO Ms. Jannel Zulita will discuss to you the NEURAL INNERVATION

OF THE GI TRACT.

The Digestive System is divided into two groups. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract and accessory digestive
organs. So let us discuss first the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal is a continuous tube that extends from the mouth to
the anus through the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Organs included: mouth, most of the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.

Organs of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
and large intestine are indicated in black while the accessory digestive organs include the teeth, tongue,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas and are indicated in red.

The length of the GI tract is about 5–7 meters (16.5–23 ft) in a living person. It is longer in a cadaver
(about 7–9 meters or 23–29.5 ft) because the muscles along the wall of the GI tract organs are in a state
of tonus (sustained contraction)

The wall of the GI tract from the lower esophagus to the anal canal has the same basic, four-layered
arrangement of tissues. The four layers of the tract, from deep to superficial, are the mucosa,
submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. Each of these layers have specific function.

MUCUSA

Let’s start first with the innermost tunic, the mucosa. Since the mucosa is the innermost layer within the
GI tract, it surrounds an open space known as the lumen. Food, mucus, and digestive juices pass through
the lumen, and the mucosa comes in direct contact with digested food. It is composed of (1) a layer of
epithelium in direct contact with the contents of the GI tract, (2) a layer of connective tissue called the
lamina propria, and (3) a thin layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae).

The EPITHELIUM is the innermost layer and it is responsible for most digestive, absorptive, and secretory
processes.

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium plays a protective function in the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, and anal canal. Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is the epithelium in which
the cells do not have a lot of keratin deposits within them, but rather are moisturized by mucus from the
salivary or the mucus glands. Layer of mucus helps protect GI Tract canal from basically digesting itself.
In the stomach. The epithelium is simple columnar, and is organized into gastric pits and glands to deal
with secretion.

In the small intestine, the epithelium (particularly the ileum) is specialized for absorption, with villi and
microvilli increasing surface area.

The rate of epithelial cell renewal in the gastrointestinal tract is extremely fast: They slough off every 5–
7 days, and new cells take their place.

Located among the epithelial cells are exocrine cells that secrete mucus and fluid into the lumen of the
tract, and several types of endocrine cells, collectively called enteroendocrine cells, that secrete
hormones.

Exocrine cells produce mucus and fluid into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract, while various types
of endocrine cells, collectively known as enteroendocrine cells, secrete hormones.

The lamina propria ( lamina = thin, flat plate; propria = one’s own) is areolar connective tissue containing
many blood and lymphatic vessels, which are the routes by which nutrients absorbed into the GI tract
reach the other tissues of the body. This layer supports the epithelium and binds it to the muscularis
mucosae (discussed next). The lamina propria also contains the majority of the cells of the mucosa-
associated lymphatic tissue (MALT). These prominent lymphatic nodules contain immune system cells
that protect against disease. MALT is present all along the GI tract, especially in the tonsils, small
intestine, appendix, and large intestine.

The muscularis mucosae, a thin layer of smooth muscle fibers, folds the mucous membrane of the
stomach and small intestine into many small folds, increasing the surface area available for digestion
and absorption. All absorptive cells are fully exposed to the contents of the GI tract thanks to the
muscularis mucosae's movements.

Submucosa lies just outside the mucosa. It is a thick layer of areolar connective tissue containing nerves,
blood vessels, and small glands. An extensive network of nerve cell processes forms a plexus (network)
within the submucosa. Autonomic nerves innervate this plexus which is the submucosal plexus. The
submucosa is relatively thick, highly vascular, and serves the mucosa. The absorbed elements that pass
through the mucosa are picked up from the blood vessels of the submucosa. It may also contain glands
and lymphatic tissue.

Muscle - moves the food along through muscular contractions.

The muscularis in the stomach differs from that of other GI organs in that it has three layers of muscle
instead of two. It consists of an inner layer of circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of longitudinal
smooth muscle that contract in opposite direction to move food through (peristalsis). Involuntary
contractions of the smooth muscle help break down food, mix it with digestive secretions, and propel it
along the tract. Between the layers of the muscularis is a second plexus of neurons—the myenteric
plexus. The muscularis of the mouth, pharynx, and superior and middle parts of the esophagus contains
skeletal muscle that produces voluntary swallowing.

Skeletal muscle also forms the external anal sphincter, which permits voluntary control of defecation
The fourth, or outermost, layer of the digestive tract is either a serosa or an adventitia. As its name
implies, the serosa is a serous membrane composed of areolar connective tissue and simple squamous
epithelium (mesothelium). It produces serous fluid which protects and lubricates the outermost layer
from sticking to other organs. The serosa is also called the visceral peritoneum because it forms a
portion of the peritoneum (which will be further discussed later). The esophagus lacks a serosa; instead,
only a single layer of areolar connective tissue called the adventitia forms the superficial layer of this
organ.

____________________________________________________________________________________

The stomach is a J-shaped enlargement of the GI tract directly inferior to the diaphragm in the
epigastric, umbilical, and left hypochondriac regions of the abdomen (see Figure 1.12a on page 20). The
stomach connects the esophagus to the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine (Figure 24.11).
Because a meal can be eaten much more quickly than the intestines can digest and absorb it, one of the
functions of the stomach is to serve as a mixing chamber and holding reservoir. At appropriate intervals
after food is ingested, the stomach forces a small quantity of material into the first portion of the small
intestine. The position and size of the stomach vary continually; the diaphragm pushes it inferiorly with
each inhalation and pulls it superiorly with each exhalation. Empty, it is about the size of a large sausage,
but it is the most distensible part of the GI tract and can accommodate a large quantity of food. In the
stomach, digestion of starch continues, digestion of proteins and triglycerides begins, the semisolid
bolus is converted to a liquid, and certain substances are absorbed.

The stomach has four main regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus (Figure 24.11). The cardia
(CAR-de¯-a) surrounds the superior opening of the stomach. The rounded portion superior to and to the
left of the cardia is the fundus (FUN-dus). Inferior to the fundus is the large central portion of the
stomach, called the body.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

The region of the stomach that connects to the duodenum is the pylorus (pı¯-LOR-us; pyl- gate; -orus
guard); it has two parts, the pyloric antrum (AN-trum cave), which connects to the body of the stomach,
and the pyloric canal, which leads into the duodenum. When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies in
large folds, called rugae (ROO-ge ¯ wrinkles), that can be seen with the unaided eye. The pylorus
communicates with the duodenum of the small intestine via a smooth muscle sphincter called the
pyloric sphincter. The concave medial border of the stomach is called the lesser curvature, and the
convex lateral border is called the greater curvature.

___________________________________________________________________________________

The stomach wall is composed of the same basic layers as the rest of the GI tract, with certain
modifications. The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelial cells called surface
mucous cells

The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelial cells called surface mucous cells

The mucosa contains a lamina propria (areolar connective tissue) and a muscularis mucosae (smooth
muscle)
Epithelial cells extend down into the lamina propria, where they form columns of secretory cells called
gastric glands.

Several gastric glands open into the bottom of narrow channels called gastric pits

Secretions from several gastric glands flow into each gastric pit and then into the lumen of the stomach.

Three additional layers lie deep to the mucosa. The submucosa of the stomach is composed of areolar
connective tissue. The muscularis has three layers of smooth muscle (rather than the two found in the
esophagus and small and large intestines): an outer longitudinal layer, a middle circular layer, and an
inner oblique layer. The oblique layer is limited primarily to the body of the stomach. The serosa is
composed of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) and areolar connective tissue; the portion of
the serosa covering the stomach is part of the visceral peritoneum.

The gastric glands contain three types of exocrine gland cells that secrete their products into the
stomach lumen: mucous neck cells, chief cells, and parietal cells. Both surface mucous cells and mucous
neck cells secrete mucus (Figure 24.13b). Parietal cells produce intrinsic factor (needed for absorption of
vitamin B12) and hydrochloric acid. The chief (zymogenic) cells secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase.
The secretions of the mucous, parietal, and chief cells form gastric juice, which totals 2000–3000 mL
(roughly 2–3 qt) per day. In addition, gastric glands include a type of enteroendocrine cell, the G cell,
which is located mainly in the pyloric antrum and secretes the hormone gastrin into the bloodstream. As
we will see shortly, this hormone stimulates several aspects of gastric activity.