A. C. Circuits 3.1 ac. 4. Ge SECTION ‘A’ SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS Important Definitions Important terms/definitions, which are frequently used while dealing with circuits, are as given below : Alternating quantity : An alternating quantity is one which acts in alternate positive and negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in definite intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical with the sequence of changes while positive. Waveform : The graph between an alternating quantity (voltage or current) and time is called waveform. Generally, alternating quantity is depicted along the Y-axis and time along the X-axis. Fig. 4.4 shows the waveform of a sinusoidal voltage. Instantaneous value : The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous value. The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are represented by ‘e’ and ‘? respectively. Alternation and Cycle : When an alternating quantit goes through one half cycle (complete set of +ve or -ve values) it completes an alternation, and when it goes through a complete set of +ve and -ve values, it is said to have completed one cycle. Periodic Time and Frequenc quantity to complete one cy by 7. 'y : The time taken in seconds by an alternating cle is known as periodic time and is denoteThe number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as frequency and is denoted by ‘. In the SI system, the frequency is expressed in hertz. The number of cycles completed per second = f. Periodic Time T = Time taken in completing one cycle eu bs In India, the standard frequency for power supply is 50 Hz. It means that alternating voltage or current completes 50 cycles in one second. 6. Amplitude : The maximum value, positive or negative, which an alternating quantity attains during one complete cycle is called amplitude or peak value or maximum value. The amplitude of alternating voltage and current is represented by E,, and [,, respectively. » 3.2 Generation of Sinusoidal AC Voltage - Alternating voltage may be generated : a) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field as shown in Fig. 3.1. b) By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil as shown in Fig. 3.2. Motion Rotor Stator: Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 In each case, the value of the alternating voltage generated depends upon the lumber of turns in the coil, the strength of the field and the speed at which the ‘oil or magnetic field rotates. = The alternating voltage generated has regular changes in magnitude and direction. SI a load resistance (e.g. a light bulb) is connected across this alternating oltage, an alternating current flows in the circuit. When there is a reversal ofpolarity of the alternating voltage, the direction of current flow in the chapel reverses. it Equation of Alternating E.M.F. Let us take up the case of a rectangular coil of V turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction, with an angular velocity of @ radians per second in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig. 3.3. Let the time be measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with the X-axis. At this instant maximum Mux, 04, links with the coil. As the coil rotates, the flux linking with it changes and hence e.m.f. is induced in it. Let the coil turn through an angle 0 in max . time ‘r seconds, and let it assume the — sinwt Sax position as shown in Fig. 3.3. Obviously Fig. 3.3 ae 8 = ol. When the coil is in this position, the maximum flux acti i ; i 5 : . ix acting vertically do can be resolved into two components, each perpendicular to the “other caine a) Component nx Sin @f, parallel to the plane of the coil. This component does not induce e.m.f. as it is parallel to the plane of the coil. b) Component 9, cos wf i : a , perpendicular to the pl; i i 1 induces e.m.f. in the coil, ee eae Flux linkages of coil at that instant (at 0°) is = No. of turns x flux linking = NO, COS ot As per F. , ; ‘araday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f induced iné i coil is equal to the rate coil 1 of change of flux link i A @' induced in the coil at this instant eee Of the coil. So, instantaneous em. e d ( , ai flux linkages) d a (N omax Cos ot) =—Nomax & ma (cos w) =—N max ® (sin et) e=-N : ©Omax Sin we Voltsir is apparent from eqn.(1) that the value of ‘e’ will be maximum (E,) yen the coll has rolated through 90° (as sin 90° = 1) ‘m? whe! ‘Thus Ey © N © Oyyay VOUS ---(2) substituting the value of Nw Q,,,, from eqn.(2) in eqn.(1), we obtain : (3) ol e Ey, sind s We know that 0 = pression of alternating e.m.f, induced in the coil that It is clear from this ¢ the sine of the time angle (0 or w1), ntaneous e.m.f, varie! instal = 2nf, where ‘7 is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence eqn.(3) can be written as e=E£,, sin 2nft ---(4) If 7 = time period of the alternating voltage ol, then eqn.(iv) may be f re-written as sve pee (120 e= En sin| Ie = Amplitude So, the ein.f. induced varies as the sine function of the time angle, wt, and if generated em.f. induced is plotted against time, EMF,¢ acurve of sine wave shape is obtained as shown in Fig. 3.4. Such an e.m Hertz E Qn n ‘Eprobleri.a3 t An alternating current /is given by / = 141.4 sin 314 f. Find (i) the maximum ‘value (ii) frequency (iii) time period and (iv) the instantaneous value when ¢ ‘is 3 milliseconds. ‘Solution : An alternating current i is given by the standard equation i= T1,, sin of The given equation is i = 141.4 sin 314¢ Comparing the two equations, we have @ 1, = 141.4 Amps GO Frequency fe = coli Qn On Gii) Time period, T = 123 2 9.02 second f 50 i f j I i gE (iv) When ¢ = 3x 107 seconds, the instantaneous value of the current is i= 1414 sin [sia x3x 107] = 114.35 Amps 3.4 Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S.) Value The r.m.s. or effective value, of an alternating current is defined as that steady (Current which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces Me same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current, when flowing igh the same resistance for the same time.7 acl ical resistances, but one is COMME, circuits with identic 2 al ‘ mare Sinee to a sinusoidal voltage source. Sete orp, cietre heal power in each circuil. The voltage applic 0 each ce adjusted that the heat power produced in each circ 2. In thip 7 0, ult iy Pen direct current / will equal 7 | which is termed r.m.s. value of the sinus current. The following method is used for finding the r.m.s. or effective Value sinusoidal waves. The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by i=1,, sing 202 In Sin Let us consider an elementary strip of thickness d@ in the first half cycle of the squared wave, as shown in Fig.3.5. f i Let / be the mid-ordinate of this strip. | Area of the strip = ? d 0 Area of first half- 0 Fig. 3.5 =f (tn, sine)’ ao 0 =I, sind) r = fn? sin?0 ao (« sents?) 22 ohn 2 |, me [(x-0)-(0-0)] tt oe 2 ~ =~ = 0.707 Im Hence, for a sinusoidal current, RMS. value of current = 0.707 ~ maximum value of current. Similarly, E =,0.707 E,,, 3.5 Average Value The arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over on: cycle is called average value. a In the case of a symmetrical wave e.g. sinusoidal current or voltage w the positive half is exactly equal to the negative half, so that the average value the entire cycle is zero, Hence, in this case, the average value is obtained by i ied the instantaneous values of current over one alternation (ha | The equation of a sinusoidal _ Wgiven bye = En sin 6. 5 Letus tak “Fie. 3.6. Let t ly varying alternating voltage ie an elementary strip of thickness d6 in the first half-cycle as shown in he mid-ordinate of this strip be ‘e’. Area of the strip = e do Area of first half-cycle ME cane Yt =Jeao 0[Ein sin 6 d8 (re= Em sin) f 0 5 oO =Em | sin8 do 0 = Ep [-c05 8]§ = 2Em Area of half cycle _ 22m Fig. 3.6 * Average value, Egy = base = or Egy = 0.637 Eq, In a similar manner, we can prove that, for alternating current ya sinusoidally, Igy = 0-637 In, Average value of Current = 0.637 x Maximum value 3.6 Form Factor and Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor A definite relationship exists between cre: st value (or peak value), average value and r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity. = = ws 1. Form Factor : The ratio of effective value (or r.m.s. value) to average val of an alternating quantity (voltage or curr ent) is called form factor, ie., rm.s. Form Factor, K,=—T™-S- value_ average value For sinusoidal alternating current, Ky = 9:207 Im 0.637 J, For sinusoidal alternating voltage, -—_— or Peak or Amplitude Factor (K,) : It is defined as the ratio of 2. Crest i tue to the effective value (r.m.s. value) of an alternating quantity. ie., maximum val maximum value i r.m.s. value For sinusoidal alternating current, 1 Kyo qe ve= 1.44 i For sinusoidal alternating voltage, Ka =m. =1414 we The knowledge of Crest Factor is particularly important in the testing of dielectric strength of insulating materials; this is because the breakdown of insulating materials depends upon the maximum value of voltage. problen"3.4 An alternating voltage has an amplitude of 100 V. Find its (i) R.M.S. value (ii) Average value Solution : m (i) RMS. value £E = —2 = 0.707 E,, al Given E,, =100V “ E = 0.707 x 100 = 70.7 volts (ii) Average value E,, = ay = 0.637 E,, Ty Eqy = 0.637 x 100 = 63.7 voltsPhase . ss alternating voltage or current changes in magnitude and direction at eve i ut So, it is necessary to know the condition of the alternating quantity a instieular instant The location of the condition of the alternating quantity al any particular instant is called its phase. ; ; ‘ We may define the phase of an alternating quantity at any particular Instan as the fractional part of a period or cycle through which the quantity has advanced from the selected origin. Taking an example, the phase of current Gyrrent at point A (+ve maximum value) is 7/4 second, where 7 is the time period, or expressed in terms of angle, it is 1/2 radians (Fig. 3.18). oO In other words, it means that the /| condition of the wave, after having advanced ta through 2/2 radians (90°) from the selected origin (i.e., O) is that it is at maximum value (in the positive direction). Similarly, -ve maximum value is reached after 3n/2 radians (270°) from the origin, and the phase of the current at point B is 37/4 second. 3.9 Phase Difference (Lagging or Lead When two alternating quantitj voltage and one current are consj ing of Sinusoidal Wave) ies, say, two voltages or two currents or one dered simultaneously, the frequency being '™— ete ‘game, they may not pass through a particular point at the same instant. saan yne may pass through its maximum value at the instant wi ough a value other than its maximum one. These two quan ‘ phase difference. Phase difference is specified either in de: hen the other passes tities are said to have grees or in radians. The phase difference is measured by the angular difference betw: © where the two curves cross the base or reference line in the same een the points direction. The quantity ahead in phase is said to /ead the other quantity, whereas the second quantity is said to /ag behind the first one. In Fig. 3.19, current 1, represented by vector OA, leads the current /, , represented by vector OB, by 6, or current — | behind the current /, by . E E E Fig, 3.19 The leading current T, goes through its zero and maximum values first and the "current [, goes through its zero and maximum values after time angle 6. The tvo p waves representing these two currents are shown in Fig. 3.19. If I, is taken as reference f-Vector, the two currents are expressed as =hp_sinot and —_ ig = In Sin (wt-0) f Current Fig. 3.20The two quantilies are said to be in phase with each other if they he two qua sa ; Pass ise i P same direction 3. theo insta and rise in the sal On, as 4 ero values at the same instant and 36 2 value. hoy, zero values at he if the two quantities pass through 2h ees ay eo ig. 3.20, , Rate ene vn in Fig. 3.21, they ate oa sian ut zen poste tree once Is 180" Wien the teed to = i 2 se. differe 8 180°. © alte ase opposition i.e., the phase ° or m/2 radians the 9 alter antiten hare a phase difference of 90° or w/2 radians they are sat 18 if quadrature. Current Fig. 3.21 Problem 3.7 The voltage applied to a series circuit is 100 sin (wt + 10°) and current is 10 sin (w¢— 30°). Find the power, (B'lore Univ. uly 1993 Solution : Given : Vii. = 100 V and Imax = 10 A o “The r.m.s values are : 1 v= 10, volts and v2 Representing the volta; ge and current vect with the X-axis and the cu trent vector is at Thus, the phase angle between V and / is = 10° + 30° = 40°, ie, ‘+ Power P = yy os Q { = {100} (10. ~ (3) (3) Cos 40° = 383 watts : Ors, the voltage vector is at ~30° with jit, as shown.asor Representation of Alternating Quantities ow that an alternating vollage or current has sine waveform, and designed to give e.u.s with the sine waveforms, The method of gto PM We kn tors are ener ing alternating quantities continuously by equations giving instantaneous * gsen “ i ; ; ; Te og = Ey, Sit cf) is quite tedious, So, Lis more convenient to represent os (li n ar een alli yalues ( tity by a phasor rotating ian anticlockwise direction (Fig, 3.22), ginusoidal quantily a sinus Fig. While representing an alternating quantity by a phasor, the following points are to be kept in mind : i) The length of the phasor should be equal to the maximum value of the alternating quantity. ii) The phasor should be in the horizontal position at the instant the alternating quantity is zero and is increasing in the positive direction iii) The inclination of the line with respect to some axis of reference gives the direction of that quantity and an arrow-head placed at one end indicates the direction in which that quantity acts. iv) The angular velocity in an anti-clockwise direction of the phasor should be such that it completes one revolution in the same time as taken by the alternating quantity to complete one cycle. Consider phasor OA, which represents the maximum value of the alternating em. and its angle with the horizontal axis gives its phase (Fig. 3.12). Now, it will be seen that the projection of this phasor OA on the vertical axis will give the instantaneous value of e.m.f. OB = OA sin wt or e = OA sin wt = £,,sin of Note: The term ‘Phasor' is also known as ‘Vector’.3.14 A.C. Circuit The path for the flow of alternating current is called an a.c. circuit i Ina d.c. circuit, the current / flowing through the circuit is given by the simple 7 Vv ' 7 relation /=—. However, in an a.c. circuit, voltage and current change from instant Rto instant and give rise to magnetic (inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) effects. SO, in an a.c. circuit, inductance and capacitance must be considered in addition to resistance. We shall now deal with the following a.c. circuits - i) AC circuit containing pure ohmic resistance only. ii) AC circuit containing pure inductance only. iii) AC circuit containing pure capacitance only. 3.14.1 AC Circuit containing Pure Ohmic Resistance When an alternating voltage is applied across a pure ohmic resistance, electrons (current) flow in one direction during the first half-cycle and in the opposite direction during the next half-cycle, thus constituting alternating current in the circuit. Let us consider an a.c. circuit with just a pure resistance R only, as shown in Fig. 3.31. Let the applied voltage be given by the equation R =r*e v=V,_ sinO=V,, sinot i ‘m ™ (i) HV, Ke As a result of this alternating voltage, alternating current ‘i’ will flow through the circuit. ©) The applied voltage has to supply the drop es v =V,,sinet in the resistance, ie., r vaiR Fig. 3.31 Substituting the value of ‘v’ from eqn.(i), we get # 4 Ving a Vin Sin@t =iR or loan sinat (ii) The value of the alternating current ‘i’ is 4 v =V,,sinet maximum when sin of = 1, Egqn.(ii) becomes, i=/, sinot ---(iii) From eqns.(i) and (ii), it is apparent that voltage and current are in phase with each other. This'is also indicated by the wave and vector diagram shown in Fig. 3.32. Fig. 3.32 Power : The voltage and current are changing at every instant.‘m INO! -'neee Iv ver, p= janeous power, Instantaneous P' 1. sin? wt ‘m!m (I-cos 2a) -Hi . cos 2wt Vind, of a constant part 7 da fy is! s instantaneous pi ft an 7 fe and part Yim cos 2et of frequency double that of voltag current y 2 Yn Im cos 2wf over a complete cycle is zero. The average value of So, power for the complete cycle is or P = VI watts where V = rms. value of applied voltage / = rm.s. value of the current Power Curve The power curve for a purely resistive circuit is shown in Fig. 3.33. It is apparent that power in such a circuit is zero only wey at the instants a, 6 and ¢, when both voltage and current are zero, but is | ft Positive at all other instants, In other words, power is never negative, so that Power is always lost in @ resistive a.c, circuit. This Power is dissipated as heat. v= Vp sinwr Problem 3.10 fie. 3-38 em.f. given by 400 taken is 2.4 sin (418 ¢~ i Frequency li) The phase angle bety, i e Hi) The resistance of the ot", a 382 an sin 418 ¢ is ' 1.37), Find ; “pPlied to a certain circuit, The d currentution = 4 pe peak value of applied voltage, V,, = 400 V peak value of circuit current, /,, V, Impedance of the circuit, Z = —22S- ) Frequency, 7 =£ozeflicient of time in expression of voltage or current Qn = 48 «66.5 Hz Qn i) Phase angle between voltage and current, 6 = 1.37 radians (lag) = 137 .190°=78.5°(lag) & iii) The resistance of the circuit, R=Z cos > = 166.6 cos 78.5° 166.6 x 0.1994 33.22 2 " 3.14.2 A.C. Circuit Containing Pure Inductance An inductive coil is a coil with or without an iron core and has negligible resistance. In practice, pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always a small resistance. However, a coil of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance, so, for the purpose of our study, we will consider a purely inductive coil. SOOT On the application of an alternating L ve voltage (Fig. 3.34) to’a circuit containing a A Pure Inductance, a back e.m.f. is produced i Bae the self-inductance of the coil. This canter Opposes the tise or fall of ) J shee at every stage, Because of the Nee of voltage drop, the applied voltage hast. is selt-i emt ong, (© Overcome this selinduced me os Li » =Vp_sinor= in wt, and the i g Let the applied voltage be » = Vi, sin © self. MdUctangs. coil = L henry. 7 ' F 7 aie 4 Self-induced e.m.f. in the coil, &, 7 Since applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the Selling emf, ie.v = -e, 4 ‘) V,_ sin wt = {4 a or di =m sin wt at L Integrating both sides, we get join fsinor ae L or i= 2 (~cos wt) +A @L where A is a constant of integration which is found to be zero fiom ini conditions, ._-V, So, f=—2 cos wt oL or ja Ym sin («2 ol 2 Current will be maximum when sin (-2)- 1, hence, the value of maxin a 2 ) V, I. sin current, /,,=—™, and it re y pressed as j= 0 Em ’ instantan i i ous current may be expre. sed as i=/,, si From the expressions of instantaneous a ee , applied voltage (v = V,, sin wf) and the TON sin sino instantaneous Current flowing through a oe Purely inductive coil, it is clear that the ‘ \ current lags behind the Voltage by 2 as ¥ pl m2 shown in Fig. 3.35, 2 i 4 —) apes. i 7 Vin. ° Inductive Reactance : L in the expression fae is known as inductive ®. reactance and is conoid by ai ie, X= ob: If ‘L’ is in henry and ‘g’ is in radians per second, then X, will be in ohms. So, inductive reactance plays the part of resistance. Power : Instantaneous power, p=oxi=Vq_ sinot. 1, sn (or-2) 2 Vin Im Sin of cos wt -V, = val gin 2ot The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of ‘p’, which is zero since average of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Put in mathematical terms, Qn Vintm Power for the whole cycle, p=— fsin20e dt=0 0 2 Hence, power absorbed in a pure inductive circuit is zero. Power Curve Fig. 3.36 The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in Fig. 3.36. This indicates that power absorbed in the circuit is zero. At the instants a, c and e, voltage is zero, So that power is zero ; it is also zero at points b and d when the current is zero. weteen @ and b-voltage and current are in opposite directions, so that power is ative and energy is taken from the circuit. Between b and c voltage and current are jj s . , fee ' * . . irate ihe Same direction, so that power is positive and is put back into the circuit. Is aay Y, between ¢ and d, power is taken from the circuit and between d and e it Into the circuit, Hence, net power is zero.t of 10 amperes ¢, blem 3.11 s a curren i) ing bre pure inductive coll inductive peace (ii) inductane,!y ei ver 2 an tie equations for voltage a current. 4 coll. Also Solution : Vv (i) Now, /= X. or X), avs aa) = 23 ohms I 10 Thus, inductive reactance, X, = 23 ohms (i) p= 22-3 _ = 0.073 H Qnf = 2nx 50 (iil) Vy = V2 x V = V2 x 230 = 325.27 volts I = V2 x 1 = V2 x10 = 14.14 Amps ® = 2nf = 2nx 50 = 314 rad/sec v=V,, sin ot = 325.27 sin 314¢ volts = Ip sin (w-2) i 2 j =14.14 sin(sttt—) amps 2 c 3.14.3 AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance When an alternating voltage j i ge is applied across the plates of a eapacieraiie c capacitor is charged in one direction and { ee in the opposite direction as the voltage reverses. With y rasa eference to Let alternating voltage Tepresented by 9 = Vin Sint be applied across a v= Vas capacitor of capacitance C Farads ‘m Sin oot ; Fig. 3.38Instantaneous charge, q = Cu = CV, sin ot Capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, or = CV, cos of Vin i=— cos of or ot Ym sin (~ 4) ae 2 The current is maximum when ¢ = or Yen. 1 ac aed] Substituting Yn. I'm in the above expression for instantaneous current, we get ac . . q i=l, sin («+2) A Vin + aa Capacitive Reactance 72 in the expression Ine is known as capacitive ac a ac reactance and is denoted by X.. 1 ie. Xx “eC If C is in farads and ‘q’ is in radians, then X, will be in ohms. It is seen that if the applied voltage is given by v = V,, sin wt, pb =Vi_ sin ot then the current is given by , . BR) i=T,,sin (+2) this shows that the current in a pure’ capacitor evel its voltage by a quarter cycle as shown in Fig. 3.39, or phase i i difference between its voltage and i =1,, sin (ot+n/2) Current is n/2 with the current Fig. 3.39 leading,Power : Instantaneous Power, pel 1 =Vi_ Lin Sin ol COS ot a1 Im sin 20 2 Power for the complete cycle 1 an = Vin Im [sin 20t di =0 2 y * n Thus the average power consumed by a pure capacitor is zero, Power Curves (Fig. 3.40) j At the instants b, d, the current is zero, so that power is zero; it is also x at the instants a, c and e, when the voltage is zero. Between a and b, voltage : current are in the same direction, so that power is positive and is being Put ie in the circuit. Between b and c, voltage and current are in the opposite direction so that power is negative and energy is taken from the circuit. Similarly, betwe c and d, power is put back into the circuit, and between d and ¢ it is taken fig the circuit. j oS. Fig. 3.40 Therefore, power absorbed in a pure capacitive circuit is zero. EProblem 3:25 A 318 uF capacitor is connect f ed te Determine (i) the capacitive reactance (i eer volts, 50 Hz a (iii) equations for voltage and current. -M.S value of curre’Solution + (i) Capactive reactance, 318 pF 1 Th Ke = onic Xx a = 10 ohms 230 V, 50 Hz con x 50 x (318 x 10°) Fig. 3.41 v Gi) RMS value of current, I= 5 1 = 20 _ 23 Amps 10 (iil) Vj, = 230 x V2 = 325.27 volts Im =23x V2 = 32.53 Amps @=2nf = 20x50 = 314 rad/sec v=Vp, sin ot or v=325.27 sin 314¢ volts P t t i=T, sin (o«+2) = 32.53 sin (sur+2) Amps [Problem rent drawn by a pure capacitor of 20 microfarads is 1.382 Amps from a 220 volts A.C. supply. What is the supply frequency ? Solution : 20 uF We have p= Cc 1,382:A Vereg or xg = = OL 59.19 I 1.382 220 V A.C. supply Also, Xp = Fig. 3.42 QnfC or, 1 ~ BO 80_Hz 2n'x (20% 10°) x 159.19‘Problem 3.14 Two similar capacito instantaneous value of € ed in series ang ae rs are connected I io = 100 sin 314 fis applied. Calculate tage wi ‘ Cay of each capacitor if the r.m.s. current taken by the combination 1s Solution : 7 : . itor; hence the : aw Let C be the capacitance of each capacitor, hence the combined fae c is 5 farads. “Comparing the equation with the standard equation, 100V and @ = 314 radians. 34 a SEL sone Then V= and v2 Hence the capacitive reactance, 1 =—1—ohms 100nc Vi __100/J2 V(l00xc) Given [=06A _ 06x V2 100x100 0.848 31400 = 0.000027 F = oe 3.15 Series R-L Circuit Let us consider an : a.c. circuit containing inductance of L henrys, 43 C a pure resistance R ohms anda » as shown in Fig. 3.43, PR Sea R THOT © ao Fig. 3.43Let V = mS. value of the applied voltage value of the current y=rm. voltage drop across R, V_=IR (in phase with 1) votage aro across L,V, = IX, (leading / by 90°) B the voltage drops across these two circuit components are shown in Fig. 3.44, where vector OA Vv Vv, indicates Vp and AB indicates V,. The applied voltage V ‘ is the vector sum of the two, i.e. OB. T vel Vgeev? = [CRP 0X.) Sin yon Rs oA Fig. 3.44 =I YR?+X,? ; v The term {R?+X;2 offers opposition to current flow and is called the impedance (Z) of the circuit. It is measured in ohms. Referring to the impedance triangle ABC, (Fig. 3.45) 2p y 2 Zz X,=oL Z°=R°+Xz L or (impedance)? = (resistance)® + (reactance)” A R B Referring back to Fig. 3.44, we observe that the Fig. 3.45 applied voltage V leads the current / by an angle 6. non -X, _X, _@L _ reactance I.R R_ R__ resistance The same feature is shown by means of waveforms (Fig. 3.46). We observe that circuit current lags behind applied voltage by an angle 6.= V,, sin of, the cur is ex ed as U 4 rent | i ied v is express! . So, if applied voltage pole by i=J,,(sin of), where Im = 7 7 rent Po j Definition of Real Power, Reactive Power, Appa Wer and Poy Factor Hed ; Let a series R-L circuit draw a current J (r.m.s. value) w! Nalternating | | i 8 Vol, j it lags behind the appj, lt of r.m.s. value V is applied to it. Suppose the current lag: PPlied vad by an angle $ as shown in Fig. 3.47. Power Factor and its significance : Vv Power Factor may be defined as the cosine of the angle of lead or lag. In Fig. 3.47, the angle of lag is shown. Thus Power Factor = cos >. In addition to having a numerical value, the power factor of a circuit carries a notation that signifies the nature of the circuit, i.e., whether the equivalent circuit is resistive, inductive or capacitive. Thus, the p.f. might be expressed as 0.8 lagging. The lagging and leading Ts refers to the phase of the current vector with respect to eat the voltage vector. Thus, a lagging power factor means ig. 3.47 that the current lags the voltage and the circuit is inductive in nature, However, the case of leading Power factor, the current leads the voltage and the circuit capacitive. amperes (kVA). Real Power : or Watts = VA cos $ Here, it should be noted that +, ower cy is : , as a pure inductance does tor cone ay doe IS due to ohmic resistance 0! er. Thus, p= vi cos ¢ R Cos oO = z (refer to the impedane, Pevr x (2) Zz € triangle of Fig. 3.45) =| >| xIR=. Zz PR