Chapter e Logic and Proof Techniques RAY After learning this chapter you will understand : Propositions. Propositional Connectives. Proofs v Direct Proof, Y Indirect Proof, v Proof by Contradiction. For Full Course Video Lectures of ALL Subjects of Eco (Hons), B Com (H), BBE & MA Economics Register yourself at www.primeacademy.in Dheeraj Suri Classes Prime Academy +91 9899192027Prime Academy, www.primeacademy.in Basic Concepts 1. Propositions : In logic and philosophy, the term proposition refers to either (a) the "content" or "meaning" of a meaningful declarative sentence or (b) the pattern of symbols, marks, or sounds that make up a meaningful declarative sentence. The meaning of a proposition includes having the quality or property of being either true or false. A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence that is true or false, but not both. For example, we consider the following sentences. (i) One plus one equals two. (i) One plus one 5 2 thi (ii) He is a university si Sentences (i) an the fitsmof which is true). On the other wi Ss RA true nor false cli falsity depends on the reference oun he. For some values of eg true; for others itis fals ides not a statement. ion : An open proposition is not simply true . It is neither true il we choose a particular value for the variable. F e true if x= 1 or but not otherwise. 3 OP; nal Connectives : The propositional connectives conjurtetfon (A), disjunction (V), implication (=), biimplication (SY. as “not”, “and”, “or”, “if-then”, “if and only if” respectively. The connectives A, V, >, designated as binary, while ~ is designated as unary. 4 Nae iven a statement p, the negation of p is the statement ” or “It is ‘tiie Case that p” and is denoted by ~ p. 5. Implication : Given two statements p and q, the implication of p and q is the st ‘If p, then q” and is denoted by p = q. We call “ey esis of the impficatién and q the conclusion. The tion p = q can be expressed in words in several w: wy. to the wor . then q”, namely: If p, then p implieSq. qifp. ponly if q. pis sufficient for gis necessary for p. 6. The Converse, Inverse and Pr" sitive of an Implication : Let p and q be two statements. The statement q => p is called the converse of the implication p => q. The statement ~ p => ~ q is called the inverse of the implication p => g. The statement ~ q => ~ p is called the contrapositive of the implication p > q. 7. The Biconditional : For statements p and q, we are often interested in both the implication p > g and its converse q = p. Mathematical Methods 22 By: Dheeraj Suri, 9899-192027 www.primeacademy.ina. Q2. Q@. Qs. Q6. Prime Academy, www.primeacademy.in Definition. Given two statements p and q, the conjunction (p > q) * (q > p) of the implication p > q and its converse q => p is called the biconditional of p and q and is denoted by p < q. The biconditional p q can be expressed as “p is sufficient for q”. Therefore, p © q can be expressed in words as p is necessary for q and p is sufficient for g. ‘Another way to say this is pis necessary and sufficient for q. Let me tell you here that, the age? “if and tony if” occurs often in mathematics. Many mathematicians abl writing “iff”. Although “iff” is informal and not ee n_and you Ss be familiar with it. Exercise 1 Which of. Myr: are propositions? (a) Leger. TiMaritzburg is the capital of KwaZulu-Natal. (c) should we study mathematics? (@) 1 is an odd integer. (©) Please be quiet. els can fly. —_ State the negation of each of the following statements. (a), Sis aneven integer. (b) Dis not an odd integer. ( is cold, oe or equivalence arrows to mark in which direct u believe the ldgical conclusion proceed in the following propositions : (i) The equation 2x 6 = 2 is fulfilled only when x = 4. 4 then 2x-6 = 2. equation x? — 4x + 4 = O is satisfied if x = 2. (iv) 9 then x > 3 or x <-3 and conversely. r following implications and decide in each case e- is true a &) wv=uw>v=w. Wi) x>y>x>0. Solve the equation 2 2 GAD? Ga)? 5 Gre) _ xx-D > x4) “=D Suppose your boss makes you the following promise: “If you meet the month-end deadline, then you will get a bonus.” Mathematical Methods 23 By: Dheeraj Suri, 9899-92027 www.primeacademy.inQ7. Qs. Qs. Quo. Qil. Qi2. L 3.(i) (iv) 4.4i) (vi) 5. Prime Academy, www.primeacademy.in Write the above statement in symbolic form. Also write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the above statement. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following statements: “If today is Saturday, then I will go for a 10km run.” Fill in the blanks with “if”, “only if”, or “if and only if” : [Eco. (H) I Sem. 2012] @ 4v4+321L x21 (i) Function fis one-to-one Function fis strictly increasing in its domain. (ii) c € Dis a maximum point for a function f....... fl) < f(e), for all x € D. (iv) x<4 0.27 <16 Suppose that P and Q are propositionsaProve that if P => Q is true, then not Q= nor P. [Eco. (H) I Sem. 2012] Consider the proy 3 @ Is the 20 necessary, or both og and sufficient for the prop’ satisfied? Gi) if x > 0 is replaced by x24. 1Sem. 2014] For following propositions P and Q, state whether Psis a necessary condition6t a sufficient condition, or both necessary and suffi tobe true? [Eco. jem. 2015] @ li’s vehicle has four wheels * Ali has a car. ~ (i) k series Sa, is convergent Gil) Pa x=(8)'%, xeR ge =2. S (iv) number nis odd is a prime number strictly greater than 2. Isx< %. condition for x(x + 4) > 0? Sem. 2016] 2x-6=2 >x=9 Y x >9 OSx>3o0rx<-3 => Correct, < Incorrect,(ii) => Micorrect, = Correct, (iii) => Incorrect, <= Incorrect, (iv) => Correct, = Correct, (v) = Incorrect, = Correct, => Correct, x°-4x4+4=0, Mathematical Methods 2.4 By: Dheeraj Suri, 9899-192027 www.primeacademy.inPrime Academy, www.primeacademy.in Let p and q be the following statements : : You meet the month-end deadline, ‘ou get a bonus Statement : p — q, Converse : q > p, Inverse : ~ p — ~ q, Contrapositive : ~ q— ~ P, Let p and q be the following statements : p: Today is Saturday, q : I will go for a 10km run Statement : p —» q, Converse : q—> p, Inverse : ~ p > ~ q, Contrapositive : ~ q—* ~ P a c. ce) Proof : In mathematics, a proof is a demonstration that if some fundamental statements (axioms) are assumed to be true, then some mathematical statement is necessarily true. Proofs are obtained from deductive reasoning, rather than from inductive or empirical arguments; a proof must demonstrate that a statement is always true (occasionally by listing all possible cases and showing that it holds in each), rather than enumerate many confirmatory cases. An unproven proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture. A statement that is proved is often called a theorem. Once a theorem is proved, it can be used as the basis to prove further statements. A theorem may also be referred to as a lemma, especially if it is intended for use as a stepping stone in the proof of another theorem. There are following methods of proofs : ()__ Direct Proof, Gi) Indirect Proof, and (iii) Proof by Contradiction. Dire€t proof : Let P(x) and Q(x) be statements with domain D. If PQ) => O(a) is true for all x ¢ D for which P(x) is true, then the universal statement eD, Pa) > 0) ‘h a proof we call a direct proof. Thus to give a direct f the above jatement, we ie P(x) is true for some particular but arbitrary el D, and then sh Q(x) is true for this element x. . Indirect Pri ir Proof by Contra Positive : Let P(x), (x) Be statements with domain D. contra positive of the state Vx eD, QO is a direct proof of its cong Vx €,~ OW) >~ Pl) that is, we assume that ~ Q(x) is true for some particular but arbitrary element x & D, and then show that ~ P(x) is true for this element x. Proof by Contradiction : This is another strategy of proving a theorem P => Q. The method of proof by contradiction is to assume that a statement is not true and then to show that that assumption leads to a contradiction. We begin by assuming that P is true and Q is false, i.e., we assume P “ ~ Q. The proof proceeds until we derive contradiction F. This completes the proof, since something must be wrong and the Mathematical Methods 25 By: Dheeraj Suri, 9899-192027 www.primeacademy.inQuo. Qu. Qi2. Q3. Qu. qs. QI6. uz. ais. us. Q20. Prime Academy, www.primeacademy.in only questionable thing was our assumption P * ~ Q. Thus if P is true, Q must be true too. Technically, we have based our proof scheme on the tautology : [P*~Q)>F] > [P>Q] where F is a contradiction. Exercise 2 Prove the following results using method of direct proof If ‘n’ is an even integer, then “3n +5” is an odd integer. If ‘n’ is an odd integer, then ‘Sn + 3” is an even integer. If ‘n’ is an odd integer, then <1? +n’ jseven. If the sum of any tw a so ififheir difference. The sum of two If‘n it - ‘Sr? + 1? ws If ‘n’is an r, then “3n? — 4n — 5° is ine If ‘n’ is. eee er, then ‘Sn*’ is an even integer. Ifne, — 3 is odd, then ‘n’ is even. Pr following results using method of indirect proof 2 If odd then ‘n’ is an even integer. Letne . Prove that if “Sn + 3° is odd, then n is even. Let x € Z. Prove that if ‘11x —3° is even, then x is odd. Let Prove that if “Sn + 3° is odd, then 7n + 4 is even. Li Prove that if “7n + 4” is even, then 3m - 5 is odd. Prove the following results using method of contradiction There are infinitely many prime numbers. Tl 10 greatest integer. There,igdo smallest positive rational number. The rational and irrational number is irrational. Let n\@2- Ibn? is even then ‘n’ is an even integer. The “As V2 is irrational. ALL Subjects of Spy Ie &¢ MA Economics Register Sourselt at (www.primeacademy.in Dheeraj Suri Classes Prime Academy +91 9899192027 Mathematical Methods 2.6 By: Dheeraj Suri, 9899-192027 www.primeacademy.in