physical fitness and performance Influence of high-resistance and high- velocity training on sprint performance CHRISTOPHE DELECLUSE, HERMAN VAN COPPENOLLE, EUSTACHE WILLEMS, MARK VAN LEEMPUTTE, RUDI DIELS, and MARINA GORIS. Deparinent of Kinesiology, Deparinent of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, BELGIUM ABSTRACT DELECLUSE, C, H. VAN COPPENOLLE, E. WILLEMS, M. VAN LEEMPUTTE, R. DIELS, and M. GORIS! Influence of high-res lance and high-velocity training on sprint petformance. Mei. Sci Sports Exeres, Vol. 27, No.8, pp. 120 1995. The purpose of this study is fo analyze the effect of high-resistanco (HR) and high velocity (HV) training on the different phases of 10-m sprint perfor- ‘mance, Two training groups (HIR and HV) were compared with vo control groups (RUN and PAS), The HIR (W = 22) and HV group (N= 21) trained 3 dk" for 9 wk: two strength taining sessions (HR oF HY) and one running session. ‘There was a run conteol group (RUN, 'N = 12) that also patiipated in the running sessions (1 dk) and 8 passive control group (PAS, NV = 11). Running speed aver a 10m sprint was recorded every 2 m. By means of # principal component analysis on all speed variables, hace phases were distinguished: iil sceclertion (010m), building-up running speed ton maximum (10-36 m), and maintaining maximum speed inthe second part ofthe ‘un (36-00 m), HV eaning resulted in improved inital acesteration (P = 0.05 compared with RUN, PAS, and HR), higher maximum speed (P < 0.05 compared with PAS), and a decreased speed enduir- ance (P << 0.05 compared to RUN and PAS). The HV group Improved Significantly in total 100 m time (P < 0.05 compared with the RUN. and PAS groups). The HR program rosulled in an improved initial acceleration phase (P < 0.05 compared with PAS). STRENGTH, ATHLETICS, RUNNING SPEED, SPRINT ‘ACCELERATION, PLYOMETRICS Miter tren piers ting hedule, However, the exact content of an appropriate strength training program is still open for discussion, Several authors distinguish between three phases in the 100-m sprint: initial acceleration, maximum running speed, and speed endurance (1,20,21). It also has been illustrated that the performance-related factors dit fer from phase to phase (4,21). This means that a training ‘ost coaches agree that strength training is one 1203 method may be successful for one phase, but not for the other phases of a 100-m run. Thus, strength training for sprinters must be viewed multidimensionally. ‘The strength of an athlete is not only determined by the size oF morphology of his muscles, but also by the ability of the nervous system to appropriately activate these muscles, As it is a sprinter’s aim to improve his power, the fastest motor units must be activated in the most specific way, and a variety of training methods can be used to enhance dynamic performance. Activating the fastest motor units is possible by using traditional weight- training methods where relatively heavy loads are lifted for relatively few repetitions. These high-resistance (HR) methods are based on the principles of the size theory for motor unit recruitment (14). According to this theory, exercising as fast as possible against loads between 70% and 100% of 1 repetition maximum (1 RM) results in the maximum recruitment of motor units and in a significant inrease in maximum strength, making this method very Popular among athletes and coaches (3,17,19), In this context some studies (9,16) have shown that maximum strength and power are not distinct entities when considering concentric contraction. However, in a stretch-shortening eycle, as during ground contact in sprint running, the correlation between maximum strength and power was found to be fairly low. Therefore, ‘one must also consider the movement velocity and move- ment specificity of the training exercises in relation to performance (7,8,10). These are principles that are neglected when working against heavy loads. In contrast (o traditional HR training, high-velocity training (HV) based on plyometric exercises represents a position at the opposite side of the speed-resistance continuum. This means that the athlete performs exercises where his/her body weight is used as the overload and where coordi- nn and speed are related to sprint performance. Some coaches and athletes perceive plyometric training as the only strength-training method that will result in an im-1204 official Jounal ofthe American Collage of Sports Medicine provement in sprint performance. Others use this type of HIV training as a bridge between HR methods and sprint training, ‘The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of specific strength training stimuli on sprint performance. It has been suggested that the different phases discussed above refer to distinct factors that determine performance and that require different training approaches. Therefore, ‘we describe and interpret in this study short-term training effects on sprint performance when viewed as a multidi- mensional skill. As speed and strength are inherently interrelated our objective is to determine effects from training which uses heavy loads (HR training) on the one hand, or which stresses primarily the speed of movement of unloaded plyometric exercises (HV training), on the other hand. ‘Movement velocity is low when exercising against high resistance, Therefore, the first hypothesis states that HR training results in improved initial sprint acceleration without improving maximum running speed. The second hypothesis states that maximum running speed can be improved with HV training, including movement-s cific plyometric exercises. METHODOLOGY Experimental Conditions ‘There ate four experimental conditions. Two training groups, the high-resistance (HR) and the high-velocity (AV) group, each followed a specific strength training program twice a week, on nonconsecutive days, for 9 wk The training programs included exercises for all main ‘muscle groups of the upper and lower body. To enhance the transfer from an expected gain in strength to an improvement in sprint performance, both training groups participated together in a sprint running workout once a ‘week. The addition of these running sessions implied the inclusion of two control groups: a run control group (RUN) and a passive control group (PAS). The RUN ‘group participated in the running workout together with the training groups once a week. The PAS group did not train, HR condition. The HR group worked both with free ‘weights and on an exercise machine with variable resis- tance, The subjects were directed to execute these exe cises at the highest possible speed. For all exercises (Table 1), except the sit-up and back-extension, the sub- jects were instructed to select the highest possible load such that they could still perform the number of repet tions and series as indicated in Table 1. For the leg press, half squat, bench press and arm curl, the loads were increased every 3 wk, while the number of repetitions was gradually reduced (Table 1). This is a commonly used approach, used (o familiarize athletes with working with an increasing load. For the leg extension, leg curl, [MEDICINE AND SCIENCE IN SPORTS AND EXERCISE TABLE f, The hghsestnc ining program, Week 3 Wook 6 Lag eaension Sx 10RM 3x 108M 3x 108M Lape Sxi0RM 3x 10M 3x 10RM Hipenensin $x T0RM— 3x 108M 3x 10RM Hpflxar = Sx T0RM 3x 10M x 108M Gackevienson 3x 15M 9x ISAM 3x15 AM ‘Stup x 18AM Ox 15AM 3% 15M Legpess Sx J0RM«SX6RM SRM, 4 AN, RMR esq Sx 10h 3x6RM SAMA AM SAMS AM Ca ase Bx 10RM «3X6AM SAMA AM. SAM, 3AM Basch press = «3x 10RM—«SXBAM 5 AM.4 AMS AM 3AM ae Dx1ORM Sx 6AM 5 AM, 4AM, SAM 3 AML ‘When te tad was 10 RU the suet ad to pertoxm 10 eptions par seis hen Tas 6AM, 8 epettons TABLE 2 Instuetions for one rttn of he gh-velaty trring eeu, Tassos xease Reps Series _—__‘fvalaton ‘Sanda broad jms 5 3 Distance Verzlums 5 3 Het Poshups 6 1 Tine url jumps 5 3 Heine Sips 5 1 Tine 4g stunt towing 5 1 Distance ‘tong Fy 1 Time Leg fredueney 0 1 Tie Bounding 5 4 Distance Hoping 5 4 Dstnee hip extension, and hip flexion, the subjects worked at an exercise rate of three series at a 10-repetition-maximum (RM) load for 9 wk. It has been concluded from training experience that increasing the loads for these mono- articular exercises could result in a higher injury rate. To control for a specific gain in strength, all subjects were tested for their 10 RM prior and subsequent to the ‘weight training period for the bench press, leg press, half squat, leg extension and arm curl. HV condition. The HV group participated in a pro- gram with unloaded plyometric exercises that empha- sized maximum speed of movement, A time check and continuous evaluation of each exercise performed en- sured and encouraged the full effort of the subjects. This program involved frequency drills, push-ups, sit-ups, and a variety of jumps (Table 2). Three rotations of a circ of 10 exercises were performed during each training session. The subjects were tested for bounding, hopping, the standing broad jump, and the vertical jump prior and subsequent to the training period. Subjects The subjects were selected out of 102 volunteers, all of ‘whom were physical education students. Participation ‘was limited to those students who had not taken part in an earlier strength training program, and those who had not been seriously injured more than once. In the experimen- tal design, the sports activity of the subjects when atINFLUENCE OF HR AND HV TRAINING leisure could have been an interfering factor in the study of training effects, Therefore, all prospective subjects completed a questionnaire. Those who intended to par- ticipate in a competitive sports activity during the exper- iment more than once a week were refused. Finally 78 white male students, aged 18-22 yr, were chosen to participate after being informed of the nature of the study and the risks of the experiments, and after signing a consent form. Their 100-m sprint performances ranged from 11.13 to 13.95 s (M + SD = 12.46 * 0.55 s). The physical characteristics of the group were as follows: weight: 70.2 + 7.2 kg; height: 1.77 = 0.06 m; Percentage of body fat: 10.1 + 1.5%. As all subjects followed the same physical education schooling during the experimental period, their daily schedules were quite similar, The 78 subjects were each assigned to one of the four experimental groups: 24 subjects to each training group and 15 subjects to cach control group. The subjects of the several groups were matched for sprint performance and sports activity. There existed no significant difference among the groups for sprint performance, weight, or height. More subjects were assigned to the training roups in anticipation of a higher expected dropout rate, A total of 12 subjects (15%) did not complete the re- quired training and/or testing, In four cases the subject ended his schooling during the experiment, and in eight cases the dropout was due to physical injury. Since all of these injuries occurred outside the study, the number of dropouts was not higher for the training groups compared to the control groups. By the end of the study the number of subjects for the HV, the HR, the RUN and the PAS group was 21, 22, 12, and 11, respectively, with a total of 66 subjects. Apparatus ‘Throughout all of the sprint tests the subjects’ running, speed was continuously recorded using a velocimeter (23). The principle of this velocimeter consists of a nylon wire connected to the dorsum of the trunk (lumbar ver- tebra 4). This wire unwinds over a precisely machined wheel as the runner moves forward, and an optical sensor ‘mounted over the wheel sends a pulse to the processor for every 0.1 m of path length, Based on these data, running speed and running time were calculated. A high-torque dic. Samarium Cobalt Servomotor provides for the re- verse torque on the wheel and serves to keep the wire straight throughout the sprint run, The tensile equilibrium force on the wire was of the order of 1 N, so it did not hinder the sprinter, The study of Witters et al. (23) showed that the velocity of decelerated motion (up to 10 ns) can be accurately recorded in the velocity range 0-15 ms", The relative error for measurement of con- stant speed up to 15 ms~' is about 1 in 1000, Offical Journal ofthe American College of Sports Medicine 1205 Test Procedure Sixty-six subjects performed an all-out 100-m sprint, prior and subsequent to the training period. Running speed was recorded by means of the velocimeter. The subjects ran individually, starting from a standing posi- tion. Based on previous research and pilot testing, no starting blocks were used to avoid the problem that a greater familiarity with the blocks would influence the analysis of training effects at the end of the training period, Starting commands were similar to those in com- petition. In this study only the speed to distance curve is analyzed, and therefore reaction time could not influence the results, The test-retest reliability coefficients for the velocity values per 2-m interval throughout 100-m sprint (V2, V4, ..., V100) were calculated for a group of 25 physical education students. These coefficients extended from 0.91 to 0.97. The coefficients for final 100-m time (7100) and maximum running speed (Vjyyq) were 0.92 and 0.96, respectively. Data Analyses Analyzing the velocity data, The velocity data for each run were first reduced to 50 velocity variables, one vatiable per 2-m running distance: the velocity at the 2-m mark (V2), at the 4-m mark (V4), ..., the velocity at the 100-m mark (V100). Using these data, two appronches were used to analyze the sprint multidimensionally. Principal component analysis. The first approach was based on a factor analytic design. As the perfor- ‘mance-determining factors in 100-m sprint are expected to change with respect to running distance, it was sup- posed that the 50 velocity values (V2, V4, ..., V100) ‘could be reduced to a number of independent components (factors). This was done by means of a principal com- ponent analysis (PCA) on the 50 velocity variables of all 132 sprint observations: 66 before and 66 after the train- ing period. The components were extracted and rotated orthogonally to the varimax criterion. The number of components was determined by a Scree test (11). As a result of this PCA for each of the 132 observations a standardized PCA score was calculated for each compo- nent. The training effects on the various dimensions of the 100-m sprint were then evaluated by comparing the pre- and the posttraining PCA scores. Parameters. In the second approach, 100-m sprint performance was divided into three phases: the acceler- ation phase, the maximum running speed phase, and the loss of running speed phase. In each phase the perfor- ‘mance was quantified by means of a parameter according to Van Coppenolle et al. (20 A10 (m's"2): VIO was divided by the time to run the first 10 m Vaux (ms~'): The highest of the 50 velocity values: V2, V4, ..., VIO1206 Offical Jounal ofthe American College of Sports Medicine MEDICINE AND SCIENCE IN SPORTS AND EXERCISE TABLE Final 100-m tine (F100, seit soda (10), maximum runing Speed (V.,) a perertan of spe ti v UN _ Peat re Past me Pa Tio 3) Teas =082 1242= 058 1251=059 2aD=049 (229082 as =O51 ROS = OK 1280 = O48 Aio(ms-®) 474028 378=029 © 38=020 © 02= 025 © GT = 02 «3712029 «38502 352 = 025 Vu is") 9402054 908= 048 © 903048 G1 = DAD «OS = 099 «sO «BEB = 037 BAD = O38 Ver 8) 58. 131 12 SSBS165 S31 1458s 1a) A512 60085 476 = 1.8 ‘aes are mean = 80. Views (96): 100 — (100 x ((V60 + V62 +... + VIOOV(21 X Vays))) T100 (s): ‘The final 100-m time as calculated from the velocity-distance curve was analyzed. Analyzing the effects from training. The progress of cach training group was first evaluated by comparing pre- and posttraining performance on five selected train- ing exercises, by means of a paired ‘est For the parameters and the PCA scores pre- and post training data were examined by means of an analysis of covariance, using the least square means method and a homogencity-of-slopes model (15), where the pretest score was used as covariate, Dependent variables (the mean posttest values adjusted for covariance) included the standardized PCA scores and the four parameters. When significant F-values were encountered, an un- paired Hest was used to identify differences among the posttest mean values (adjusted for covariance) of the different groups. A Bonferroni correction was used to adjust the significance level in relation to the number of ‘tests performed. ‘The homogeneity-of-slopes model was performed to check for interaction effects between pre and posttraining values among the four groups. RESULTS To establish each group's performance level, the mean parameter values before and after training are presented in Table 3 for all experimental conditions Principal Component Analysis ‘The PCA on the 50 velocity variables of the 132 observations resulted in the extraction of three compo- nents, These components were uncorrelated as they were rotated orthogonally to the varimax criterion. The num- ber of components was determined by a Scrce test (1). ‘The eigenvalues of the third and the potential fourth component (not extracted) were 0.93 and 0.44, respec- tively. The eigenvalues following rotation of all selected components are presented in Table 4. Ninety-five percent of all the variance within the 50 velocity variables was explained by means of these three components, ‘The loadings of the 50 velocity variables on c: ‘component are graphically displayed in Figure 1. Hereby the velocity variables are arranged in order of running distance on the horizontal axis to Musirate the importance of each component in the 100-m run, ‘h TABLE 4, Eigenvalues of ee eomgonnls folioning vain rotalon, and pacent- ‘Me ovaries exes Variance (6) ES eee Component 1 268 512 512 ‘Componan 2 Me 28 810 Sargon 3 70 ao 50 Te grt (Par and cumuatv Cun) prceniage of expand vance is ndeaied Totoving varinae rote, weet teens, Pheer wre 1~Graphie display of the loadings ofthe spoed variables on the three selected compononts. The 80 speed variables (V2, V4, ‘Vi00) are arranged in order of running distance on the horizontal ‘The three curves of these component loadings (Fig. 1) indicate that the velocity variables between 0-and 10 m had the highest loading on component 3. The velocity variables from 12 to 34 m loaded highest on component 2, and the velocity variables between 36 and 100 m showed the highest loadings on component 1 Training Effects Training exercises. The HR training resulted in a significant enhancement (P < 0,001) of the 10 RM values of five selected exercises: the bench press, leg press, half squat, leg extension, and arm curl. The HV training also resulted in a significant improvement (P< 0.08) of the performances in the vertical jump, standing broad jump, hopping, bounding, and backward throwing of a S-kg weight Standardized PCA scores. The adjusted posttrai ing means of the PCA scores were compared for all experimental conditions by means of analysis of covari- ance (Table 5). The data in Table 5 indicate that the score on component 3 improved following the HV training This improvement is significant compared with all ex- perimental conditions. The posttraining score on compo-INFLUENCE OF HR AND HV TRAINING TABLE 5, The adjusted posting means or the component seores (COM) in at meal conn HR Ww UW Pas cOWP I O1t= 10 —ot=101 020098 026005 cowp2 -oo7=99 aos 102 -ag2=a82 031 = 0g) COUP 3* 014 = 087t_—100= 088g -050= 100 _—105= 120 ‘he vals ae the mean component scores and SD * Baalue for te group eft i sigicam (P < 0.5); t P < 0.05 improved compared wih PAS; # P< 0.05 improve compared With RUN; § P= 0.05 improved compared with HA, TABLE 6. Th adits posting means fr 100 time (T100), NO, Vag and a 8 TOW), O08 as0my Ha=0H wm om Reeder Seecets Sarzoa ‘Suzase teste Siaite than & Saisie eatin tors tan ‘and the sandal, * Pale fr the grup eect i sgniican ( < 0.05); + P < 005 improved compared with PAS; 4 P < 0.05 improved compared ‘with AUN: § P= 0.05, Improved compared with HR; 4 P < 005 improved compared wth HY. nent 3 for the HR group was only significantly higher ‘when compared with the PAS group. No other significant differences were noticed as shown in Table 5 and there ‘were no specific interaction effects between pre- and posttraining values among the groups. Parameters. As the components are an abstraction of real running speed and running time, these latter data are referred to in Table 6 by the parameters. These data indicate that only HV training results in a 100-m time (1100) that is significantly faster when compared with both control groups. The initial acceleration of the HV group improved with respect to all other groups, but ‘maximum running speed was only significantly higher when compared with the PAS group, A10 was signifi- cantly higher for the HR group, but only compared with the PAS group. The Vjgq-values indicate an improve- ‘ment in sprint endurance for the RUN and the PAS groups when compared with the HV group. No specific interaction effects between pre- and posttraining values were noticed among the groups. Discussion Principal Component Analysis ‘The results of the principal component analysis cor firm the hypothesis that sprint performance is a mul mensional skill with three components. When the com- ponent loadings for all velocity variables are graphically presented in relation to running distance (Fig. 1), ther a specific curve for each component. Component 1, the first to be extracted, is a general component that indicates to what extent the subject can achieve and maintain high running velocities in the second part of the run. All velocity variables from 36 to 100 m (V36, V38, 'V100) have their highest loading on this component. (Oficial Journal ofthe American College of Sports Medicine 1207 TABLE 7. etn of he components of 100-m spin parfomance iy Pat of te rn (Component + Wssnng maximum speed From Veg eh Component 2 Continued acoaratian From 1671 1 py Component nl aaa Fst 10m ten ‘The definition of components 2 and 3 is related to sprint acceleration, as the velocity variables from 0 to 36 m had high loadings on these components. Component 3 ‘was dominant in the first 10-m interval with high load- ings of the variables V2 to V10. This component was identified with the ability to achieve a high initial accel- eration. Component 2 refers to the transition phase be- tween initial acceleration and maximum running speed since velocity variables V12 to V34 had the highest loading on this component. It was concluded that com- ponent 2 was related to the ability to continue building-up running speed to a high maximum following the phase of initial acceleration, The definition of the components is summarized in Table 7. The finding of the two component acceleration phase supports the proposition of several authors (1,6) to divide the acceleration phase into two parts. Training Effects HR condition. The basis for training sprinters with a HR program is the size theory of motor unit recruitment, which implies that the recruitment of all motor units is ‘guaranteed only when working against heavy loads (14). thas also been reported that this method enhances power and movement speed to a greater extent than training with relatively light loads (2,3,17,19). The HR group in this study showed a clear increase in strength as indicated by the improvement of the 10 RM values, but the effect on sprint performance is limited to an improvement in the score on component 3 and an enhancement of the A10 value that is only significant when compared to the PAS group. These two latter variables represent the ability to achieve a high initial acceleration. There existed no sig- nificant difference in initial acceleration between the HR and the RUN group. Therefore, the combination of the HR program and the running sessions resulted in greater sprint acceleration but neither the HR training nor the running session was sufficient on its own to result in a significant improvement. For the HR group there was no improvement for other components or parameters of sprint performance. It can be concluded that these findings confirm the results of earlier studies (5,22), where no gain in sprint performance was noticed following a HR program. How- ever, in this study we expected to find specific changes for one of the phases in 100-m sprint, as sprinting was analyzed as a multidimensional skill. Hypothesis 1 stated that the lower movement velocity in the first part of the1208 Official Joural of the American College of Sports Medicina sprint acceleration was related more to the exercising speed in the HR program and that therefore this training ‘method would be efficient to improve initial acceleration, This hypothesis was rejected when comparing the HR group to the RUN group. HV condition. A gain in strength is always combined with, and partially due to adaptive changes in the nervous system, The importance of these neural adaptations re~ lated to specific skills like sprinting is the theoretical basis for a training method with exercises that are move- ment-specific and velocity-specific to sprinting. The HV program in this study resulted in better (P< 0.05) per- formance for all training exercises following the 9-wk training period. HV training was expected to be the most efficient training method for improving maximum run- ig speed because it can be organized according to the principles of movement specificity and velocity specific- ity. The results in Tables 5 and 6 indicate that the HV group had a significantly higher score on component 3 and on A10 when compared with all other experimental conditions, included the HR group. The gain in maximum running speed was only significant compared with the PAS condition, but not statistically different from the RUN condition, So improvement in maximum running speed was the result of a combination of HV training and running sessions; therefore, the second hypothesis cannot be confirmed. Due to a remarkable gain in initial accel- eration, the HV group was the only group to improve significantly in 100-m time. The data in Table 3 refer to the magnitude of this improvement: acceleration and 0.21 s for final sprint tim: Surprisingly, the Vioys values (Table 3 nificant improvement in sprint endurance for the RUN and PAS groups when compared with the HV group. For the PAS group this can only be the result of improved general physical fitness due to the physical education schooling, The other experimental groups benefited also from this physical education program, but the training program reduced this effect (Table 6). The difference in ViouValue was significant between the HV group and both control groups. This indicated that the improved performance in sprint acceleration and maximum running speed of the HV group could not be maintained at the end of the run, and this resulted in a relatively higher loss in running velocity. REFERENCES 1. Banrower, K and A. Gowen. Die Bedeutung dor Pick-up- Beschleunigung bei Hchstlestongen im 100 m sprint. Lela let 9 12}:1718, 1992. 2 Boumus, M. and D, Scroaprausicen, Der Einfluss von Maxi= nulkzaftsining auf dic Bewegungsschrelighet, Leistungssport 7(1)3-10, 1977. 3, Bonus, M, and D. Scinmprn.sciee, Maximalrfl-Sehnellkrft- ‘Bewegungsschnelligkeit. In: Leihtarhltiktrinng im Spannungs- [eld von Wissenschaft und Praxis, D. Augustin and N. Miller (Eds). Niederhausen: Schors Verlag, 1981, pp. 256-272, MEDICINE AND SCIENCE IN SPORTS AND EXERCISE Conclusions Sprint performance can be analyzed as a complex skill with three phases. Each phase demands a specific train- ing approach and the findings of this study illustrate that 9 wk of HR training results in a clear gain in strength in the training exercises, but this does not guarantee that sprint performance will be improved. Nevertheless, HR training is very popular among athletes and coaches and this study does not exclude that a long-term HR program can result in significantly faster sprint times, A HV program is efficient for improving initial sprint leration and final sprint time within 9 wk. This ‘means that this type of training may not only be consid~ ered as a method for improving the transfer between HR ig and sprint performance. The HV program did not tend to improve maximum running speed, as stated in the second hypothesis. The relation between HY training and initial acceleration can probably be explained by the fact that in the takeoff phases of jumping exercises, as well as in the inital sprint acceleration phase, the athlete needs to create a maxi- mum acceleration of the whole body mass. It may be concluded that velocity specificity and movement sp ificity of the training exercises is of paramount impor- tance for realizing a significant improvement in sprint performance within 9 wk. It is clear that a sprint-specific approach is necessary to improve maximum running speed within a short period, for example, by making small adaptations within sprinting itself. This has been illustrated for supramaximal sprint training (12,13) and for sprinting against resistance (18). Finally, the in- creased Vj. values of the HV group illustrate how dif- ficult it is to compose a well-balanced training program that improves running speed in all phases of the 100-m sprint. Unfortunately, until now sport scientists have shown very litle interest in developing training strategies that may improve sprint performance. Nevertheless, sprint acceleration, maximum running speed, and speed endurance are not only crucial in the 100-m sprint, but in many other sports they are also determinants of perfor- mance. 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