LL.B. (Hons.)- Ist Sem.

SOCIOLOGY-I-
Unit I
Basic Concepts: Sociology, Meaning, Scope and Subject matter, Society, Community, Association, Institutes, Mores
Social Group: Meaning and Classification of Social groups, Family, Traditional and Modern.
ewy vo/kkj.kk & lekt'kkL=] vFkZ] {ks=] vkSj fo"k; oLrq] lekt] leqnk;] laxBu] laLFkk;saA
lkekftd lewg & lkekftd lewg dk vFkZ vkSj oxhZdj.k] ifjokj & ikjEijkxr ,oa vk/kqfudA
Year 2013
Qus.1-What do you understand by social group? Distinguish between in and out group?
lkekftd lewg ls vki D;k le>rs gSA vUr% vkSj ckg~; lewg esa vUrj dhft;s\
Qus.2- Delimit the scope of sociology. Lekt’kkL= ds fo"k;&{ks= dk ifjlheu dhft;sA
Short Questions.
Qus.1- Examine the features of community. leqnk; dh fo’ks"krkvks dk ijh{k.k dhft;sA
Qus.2- Discuss the concept of folkways.tujhfr dh vo/kkj.kk dh foospuk dhft;sA
Qns.3- Explain the concept of social morphology Lkekftd Lo:i”kkL= dh O;k[;k dhft;sA
Qus.4- Distinguish between primary and secondary grou izkFkfed vkSj f}rh;d lewg esa vUrj dhft;sA
Qus.5- Discuss the attributes of modern family? vk/kqfud ifjokj dh fo’ks"krkvks dh foospuk dhft;\

Year 2014
Qus.1- Define sociology and discuss the subject matter.
lekt'kkL= dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft;s rFkk mldh fo"k; oLrq dh foospuk dhft;sA
Qus.2- Define the concept of family. Examine the feactures of traditioinal family?
ifjokj dh vo/kkj.kk dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft;sA ijEijkxr ifjokj dh fo’ks"krvksa dk ijh{k.k dhft,A
Short Questions.
Qus.1-Distinguish between in and out group? vUr% vkSj ckg~; lewg esa vUrj dhft;s\
Qus.2-Society involves both likeness and difference Comment.Lekt es lekurk vkSj fofHkUurk nksuksa feyrs gSa fVIi.kh
dhft,A
Qus.3- Distinguish between association and community. lfefr vkSj leqnk; esa vUrj dhft;sA
Qus.4- Define Mores? :f< D;k gSA
Qus.5- Discuss views of Simmel on form and content. Lo:Ik vkSj vUroZLrq ds fo"k; esa lhesy ds fopkjksa dh foospuk
dhft,A

Year-2015
Qus.1- Define sociology and discuss the subject matter. & lekt'kkL=] dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft;s rFkk mldh fo"k; oLrq dh foospuk
dhft;sA
Qus.2- What is understand by primary Group? Distinguish between primary and secondry group. izkFkfed lewg dks ifjHkkf"kr
dhft;s A izkFkfed ,oa f}rh;d lewg esa vUrj dhft;sA
Short Questions
Qus.1- Explain the concept of folkways. tujhfr dh vo/kkj.kk dh O;k[;k dhft,A
Qus.2- Discuss the attributes of modern family? vk/kqfud ifjokj dh fo’ks"krkvks dh foospuk dhft;\
Qus.3- Discuss any two features of association. lfefr dh fo”ks’krkvksa dh foospuk dhft;sA

Year 2016
Ques.1- Define the scientific nature of sociology. & lekt'kkL=] ds fo"k;&{ks= dk ifjlheu dhft;sA
Ques.2-What do you mean by social group? Distinguish between primary and secondary group.
Short-
1-Role of Religion
2-Difference between group and crowd
3- Features of Association
Year 2018
Q.1- Define sociology and delimit its nature and scope.
lekt'kkL=] dks ifjHkkf’kr dhft;s rFkk mlus fo’k; {ks= dk ifjlheu dhft;sA
Q.2-What do you understand by primary Group? Distinguish between primary and secondary group.
izkFkfed lewg dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft;s A izkFkfed ,oa f}rh;d lewg esa vUrj dhft;sA
Q.3-- Define the concept of family. Examine the features of traditional family?
ifjokj dh vo/kkj.kk dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft;sA ijEijkxr ifjokj dh fo’ks"krvksa dk ijh{k.k dhft,A

Model paper 2019

Long
Q1. Define sociology its scope and how it is related with other subjects?
Q2 Define concept of family in sociology. Distinguish between modern and traditional family?

Short notes
1. Group &society, institution& community and their respective differences (समू ह समाज संस्थाए एवं सुमदाय में अंतर)
2. Social group and its aspects (सामाजजक समू ह और उसके जवजिन आयाम)

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 LL.B. (Hons.) IstSem. SOCIOLOGY -UNIT-I

Long Question-1 Define Sociology.Delimit the scope of sociology

Meaning of Sociology-
 Sociology is the youngest of the all Social Sciences. Sociology emerged about the middle of 19th
century, when social observers began to use scientific methods to explain social phenomena .
 The term Sociology was coined by Auguste Comte , a French philosopher .
 The word Sociology is derived from the Latin word ‘Societus’ meaning ‘Society’ and the Greek
word ‘logos’ meaning 'Science'. The meaning of ‘Sociology’ is thus the ‘Science of Society’.
Definition of Sociology:
It is very difficult to define sociology because it studies society as a whole but our society is on the wheel
of change and our behavior, society estimate many sociology in different ways according to their views.
1- as a study of society: Auguste Comte
Definition of 2- as a system of social relationship MacIver & Page
Sociology 3 - about Social Interaction & action: Morris Ginsberg
4- about Social events, social life, social activities & social function Ogburn & Nimkoff
5- about social groups H.M. Johnson
6- about Collective representation Emile Durkhiem

1-Sociology as a study of society:

Auguste Comte defines “sociology as the science of social phenomena".
L.F. Ward – "Sociology is a science of society and social phenomena".
2-Sociology as a system of social relationship
According to MacIver & Page:
"Sociology is the science of social relationship, the web of social relationship, we call it society".
3-Sociology about Social Interaction & action:
Morris Ginsberg – "Sociology is the study of human interaction & interrelations, their conditions and
consequences".
4-Sociology about Social events, social life, social activities & social function
Ogburn & Nimkoff – "Sociology is the scientific study of social life".
5-Sociology about social groups
H.M. Johnson – "Sociology is the science that deals with social groups "
6-Sociology about Collective representation
Emile Durkhiem- "Sociology is the science of collective representation". By collective
representation he means these collective symbols that are accepted by the majority of the people. Since they
are social facts, they are instrumental in guiding and controlling the individual behavior.

Scope of Sociology

Specialistic/Formal Simmel’s View, small's Views Von Wiese Views

istic school
Scope/subject-
matter of sociology B) Sorokin’s View-
Synthetic School (1)aspects of Social C)Karl Mannheim’s
(A) Durkheim View -
phenomena (1)Systematic
(1)Social Morphology
(2)Social & Non – sociology.(2)Historical
(2)Social Physiology
phenomena sociology.
(3)General Sociology
()3General Features
of Social
phenomena

V.F.Calberton- "Sociology is an elastic science, it is very difficult to determine from where its boundaries
begin and end". As it studies the human life therefore the scope should be very wide. Some say it is a
science so some scholars say it should have a limited scope.
1-Formalistic school

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  Some scholars say it should have limited scope because studying a vast scope can face
difficulties (i.e. conducting experiments)George Simmel supports this and is the head of this
and says form of social interaction should be studied.
 Sociologist of formalistic school were Simmels .Small, Vanwiese Max Weber etc.
 Sociology is the only exclusive science which can study social relationship.
 Aim of Sociologist in this school was to make sociology as a pure science.
Simmel’s View-According to Simmel , Sociology in order to develop as a specific Social Science should
deal with different forms of human relation.
Small’s Views- According to Small, Sociology does not undertake to study all the activities of society .The
Scope of Sociology is the study of the genetic forms of social relationships, behavior’s and activities etc.
Von Wiese's Views- According to Van Wiese, the scope of Sociology is the study of forms of social
relationships. He has divided these social relationships into many kinds.
Max Weber 'sViews- According to Max Weber the aim of Sociology is to interpret social behavior . But the
social behavior does not cover the whole field of human relationship. Indeed, not all human interaction are
social behavior.
Thus, according to the formalistic school, Sociology studies one specific aspect of relationships i.e.
their forms in their abstract nature, and not in any concrete situation.

2-Synthetic school
 Sociology studies so many aspects such as political, biological, psychological etc. therefore we
should have a wider scope.
 Sociologist of this School suggests that the aim of Sociology is to study any part or portion of the
Sociology with relation to the other disciplines.
 Aim of Sociologist in this school was not to make Sociology as a pure Science.
 Synthetic school tried to established Sociology as a holistic discipline.
 Sociologist of Synthetic schools were Durkheim, Hobhouse, Sorokin , Karl Mannheims etc.

Durkheim 's view-According to Durkheim Sociology can be divided into three parts.
1. Social morphology-It is concerned with Geographical or territorial ban’s of life of people. It also deals
with such relationships with types of Social Organizations and the problems of population. For example-
volume, surface area, density etc.
2. Social Physiology-Durkheim divided Social physiology into number of branches such as, Sociology of
religion, economic life, Law, Morals, Language etc. Everyone of these branches of Sociology deals with
a set of social facts, i.e. activities related to various social groups.
3. General Sociology-The function of general Sociology is to discover the general character of the social
facts. It also determines whether there are different laws establish by other social sciences

Sorokin'sView-According to Sorokin the subject-matter of Sociology includes-

1. The study of relationship between the different aspects of Social phenomena
2. The study of relationship between the social and non-social.
3. The study of general features of Social phenomena.

Karl Mannheim’s View-

Karl Mannheim divides Sociology into two main sections-
1. Systematic & general Sociology 2--Historical Sociology
Conclusion
Thus the scope of Sociology is very wide it is general Science but it is also a special science. As a matter of
fact the subject matter of all social sciences is society what distinguishes them form one another is their view
point .
MacIver- Correctly remarks what distinguishes each from each is the selective interest

LL.B. (Hons.) IstSem. SOCIOLOGY -UNIT-I

Q.2 - Define Family and discuss difference between Traditional & Modern family.
Ans. Meaning of Family-
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  The word ‘family’ has been taken over from the Roman word, ‘famulus'; meaning a servant.
 In Roman Law the word denoted the group of producers and slaves and other servants as well as
members connected by common descent or marriage.
According to Eliot and Merrill-Family is" the biological social unit composed of husband wife and
children".
According to Clare-Family is "a system of relationships existing between parents and childern".

Characteristics of a family may be deducted.

1. A mating relationship
2. A Form of marriage
3. A system of nomenclature
4. An Economic Provision
A common habitation

Types of family

Traditional Family Modern Family

Traditional Family-
 The family in India does not consist only of husband, wife and their children but also uncles, aunts
and cousins and grandsons.
 This system called joint family or extended family system is a peculiar and characteristic to the
Indian Social life.
 A son after marriage does not usually separate himself from the parents but continues to stay with
them under the same roof messing together and holding property in common.
 The family has joint property and every person has his share in it since the time he is born.
Definitions of joint family -
According to Karve-“A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food
cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related
to each other as some particular type of kindred.
Characteristics of Joint family-
(1)-Large size (2)-Joint Property (3)-Common Residence (4)-Co-operative organization (5)-
Common Religion (6)- A Productive Unit (7)- Mutual rights and obligations

Modern Family –
 Of all human groups the family is the most important primary group. It is a small social group
consisting ordinarily of a father mother and one or more children.
 The modern family is democratic based on equality between husband and wife, with consensus in
marking decision and with increasing participation by children as they grow older.
 In the modern family, marriage is in the hand of young people and selection on the basis of
romance, affection and personality adjustment to each other.
 The achievement of personal happiness desire for innovation are watch words of the modern family.
features of modern family-
The main characteristics of modern family are the following-
(1) Decreased Control of the Marriage Contract. (2) Changes in the relationship of man and woman. (3)
Laxity in sex relationships. (4) Economic independence.(5) Smaller family .(6) Decline of Religious
control. (7)- Separation of non-essential functions. (8) Filocentric family
.

LL.B. (Hons.) IstSem. SOCIOLOGY -UNIT-I

Question 3 Explain social group and distinguish between in group and out group ?
Meaning of Group-
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  Man is social animal. He rarely, if ever, exists alone. His daily life is made up largely of participation
in groups.
 Social group is a collection of human being . In its elementary sense, a group is a number of units of
anything in close proximity to one another.
 In the human field, by group we mean any collection of human beings who are brought into social
relationships with one another
Definition of group-
Ogburn and Nimkoff-"Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another , they
may be said to constitute a social group. "
Bogardus-" A social group may be thought of as a number of person, two or more, who have some common
objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate in similar
activities".

Characteristics of social group

1-Reciprocal Relations 2-Sense of unity 3-We feeling 5-Common interests 6-Similar behavior 7-Group
Norms

Cooley's and Sumner's classified Social group

Cooley ( Social Group) Sumner (Social group)

Primary Group Secondary Group In Group Out Group

Cooley has classified groups into primary and secondary-

Meaning of Primary Group-The primary group is the nucleus of all social organization. Cooley, the first
Sociologist to draw the attention on primary groups describes them in the following words “By primary
groups I mean those characterized by intimate face to face association and co-operation.

Characteristics of a primary group-

1-Physical Proximity 2- Small size 3- Stability 4- Limited Self interest 5- Similarity of background
6- Intensity of shred interest

Meaning of Secondary Group-

 A secondary group is one which is large in size such as a city, nation, political party, corporations
international cartel and labor union .Here human contacts become superficial and undefined .

Definition of Secondary Group-

Ogburn-The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups.

Main characteristics of Secondary groups

(1)Formal and impersonal relations. (2) Large in size. (3) Option of membership
(4)Active and inactive members (4) Formal rules (5)Status of individual depends on his role

Sumner’s Classification (In group Vs Out groups)

Sumner made distinction between an in-group and out-group.
In-Group-
 The individual belongs to a number of group which are his in-group. The groups with which the individuals
himself are his in groups.
 Thus , the family , the college to which a person belongs are his in -group calling forth similar attitudes
 In -groupness produces among them the sense of belonging together which is the core of group life.
 An in-group acquire its consciousness of being from the exclusion of some person as well as from the
inclusion of other person .
 The members of such a group identify themselves with one another and with the group as a whole .
 In their relationship towards each other they display co-operation ,goodwill , mutual help and respect for one
another 's right.

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  The member of the in-group signify their unity by the word "We" and their distinctiveness from the others by
applying to those the term " They" .
Out-Group
 all other groups to which he does not belong are his out groups.
 Out group is defined by the individual with relation to the group.
 The out group consists of those persons whether formally organized or not, towards whom we feel a
sense of indifference, avoidance, disgust, competition or outright conflict.
 The distinction between in group and out group is usually expressed in the contrast between ‘we’ and
‘they’ or other.

In Groups Out Groups

1-Individual belongs to which group are his in-group 1--Individual does not belongs to which group are
. his out group .

2. In- groups are smaller in size. They are localized . 2.Out groups are relatively bigger in size. They are
not necessarily restricted to a small area.

3.Members stay together communication is not only 3.Since members are spread over a vast area direct
direct but also quick and effective. communication is difficult. It is mostly indirect in
nature.

4.Co-operaton is direct. Members work together, 4.Co-operation is mostly indirect. Co-operation is

play together, enjoy together and in times of crisis an intended act to serve a particular need. It is
struggle together. Co-operation is natural and limited to that purpose only. It is not spontaneous but
spontaneous. deliberate and cultivate.

5.Group which are characterized, mutual aid and 5.Groups which provide experience lacking in
companionship. Example: family, neighborhood , intimacy .Example-Political parties, trade union,
community, children’s play group local brotherhood. religious associations, factory, Rotary club, Lions
clubs etc.

6.Groups are confined to small geographical area. 6.Groups are not characterized by a physical area.

7.Social relations are “face to face, direct intimate, 7.Social relations are indirect, impersonal, non-
personal, contractual, non-specialized, and non- intimate, contractual, specialized, and more
economic in character. economic in nature.

8.Interest of the members are not specific but 8.Interest of the members are more specific. Hence
general. Everyone is interested in the welfare of groups are often called ‘Special interest groups.”
every one else.

9.Groups are relatively durable. 9.Groups may be temporary or permanent.

10.In- groups control the behaviors of the members 10. Out groups have limited control over the
to a great extend. Informal means of social control behavior of the members. Informal means are not
are enough to regulate the relations. enough and hence formal means of social control are
resorted to for maintaining the group control.

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 LL.B (Hons) 1st Semester, Unit- II Sociology

Syllabus:- Pioneers of Social Thought : Auguste Comte : Law of Three stages, Positivism and Religion of
humanity, Emile Durkheim : Social Solidarity, The theory of Division of Labour, Theory of Religion and
suicide, Karl Marx : marxim concept of Social change, Class struggle, Division of Labour, Max veber :
Sociology of religion, The concept of authority and the concept of Social action.

Year – 2014
Long Questions
Q1. Examine Comte’s analysis of the law of three stages.
dkEVs d rhu& Lrjh; fl)kURk ds fo’ys”k.k dk ijh{k.k dhft,A
Q2. Explain Marx theory of class.
ekDlZ ds cxZ ds fl)kURk dh O;k[;k dhft,A
Short Questions
Q1. Review Religion Of humanity. Ekkkuork ds /keZ dh leh{kk dhft,sA
Q2. Discuss the Concept of traditional Authority . ijEijkxr lRrk dh vo/kkj.kk dh foospuk dhft,sA
Q3. Explain the symptoms of egoistic suicide. vge~oknh vkRegR;k ds y{k.kksa dh O;k[;k dhft,sA
Year – 2015
Long Questions
Q1.Examine Comte views on Religion of humanity.
Ekuork ds /keZ ij dksEV ds fopkjksa dk ijh{k.k dhft,aA
Q2.Explain the relationship between religion and capitalism as elaborated by Max Weber .
eSDloscj }kjk foLRkkfjr /keZ vkSj iw¡thokn ds lECkU/k dh O;k[;k dhft,A
Short Questions
Q1.Review Tharyian ideology based on class conflict. oxZ l?k”kZ ij vk/kkfjr ekDlZoknh fopkjksa dh
leh{kk dhft,A
Q2.Explain the reasons for Anomique suicide . vLoHkkfod vkRegR;k ds dkj.ksa dh O;k[;k dhft,A
Year -2016
Long Questions
Q1. Examine Comte’s analysis of the law of three stages.
dkEVs d rhu& Lrjh; fl)kURk ds fo’ys”k.k dk ijh{k.k dhft,A
Q2. Review the views of Marx on social-class and class-conflict.
ekDlZ ds cxZ ds fl)kURk dh O;k[;k dhft,A
Short Questions
Q1. Review Religion of humanity. Ekkkuork ds /keZ dh leh{kk dhft,sA
Q2.What is Rationalistics action ?Discuss. sslRrk dh vo/kkj.kk dh foospuk dhft,sA
Q3. Explain the symptoms of egoistic suicide. vge~oknh vkRegR;k ds y{k.kksa dh O;k[;k dhft,sA
Year 2018
Long Questions
Q1. Discuss Comte’s view on “Religion of humanity”. ßEkkuork ds /keZÞ ij dkEV ds fopkjksa dh
foospuk dhft,A
Q2. Explain Durkheim’s theory of suicide. nq[khZe ds vkRegR;k ds fl)kURk dk ijh{k.k dhft, A
Q3. .Explain the relationship between religion and capitalism as elaborated by Max Weber .
eSDloscj }kjk foLRkkfjr /keZ vkSj iw¡thokn ds lECkU/k dh O;k[;k dhft,A
Model paper 2019

Long questions

1 Comte’s analysis of the law of three stages. dkEVs d rhu& Lrjh; fl)kURk ds fo’ys”k.k dk ijh{k.k
dhft,A
2 Explain Durkheim’s theory of suicide. nq[khZe ds vkRegR;k ds fl)kURk dk ijh{k.k dhft, A
Short Notes.
1. Class struggle 2 . Authority 3.Division of labour

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 LL.B-Hons – Ist Semester Sociology-I-Unit-2-2017

Q.1.Examine Comte’s Work on following;-

A). Law of three stages. B). Religion of Humanity
A). Law of three stages
 Ans. He was born in Montpellier, France.
 He was a philosopher and one of the founders of Sociology and Positivism,
 Comte was the first person introduce the term"Altruism"(live for others)
 France was passing through social crisis during the time of Comte, so in order to find a way out of
this social impasses. He thought a new science of society is needed which he termed as"Sociology".
 He divided Sociology into two main parts,1- Social Statics 2- Social Dynamics .
 Social statics- the study of the conditions and pre-conditions of social order .for e.g. Family (smallest
social units),families become tribes and tribes become nation.
 Social dynamics- the study of human progress and evolution.
 His book 1- The course of Positive Philosophy 2- A system of Positive Polity
Epistemology of his theory-
 Comte was very much concerned about how society establish social order and how it is changed.
 In this regard ,he argued that, society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to
the Law of Three stages.
Law of Three Stages is an idea developed by Auguste Comte in his work The Course in Positive
Philosophy. It states that society as a whole, and each particular science, develops through three mentally
conceived stages: (1) the

theoleogical stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the positive stage.

Law of Three Fetishism

Theological stage
stage
Metaphysical Polytheism

Monotheism
Scientific or positive
stage m

Stage Time-period Ruler Dominate social

unit
1-Theological or from the dawn of a-Priest Family
Fictitious stage man
2- Metaphysical or middle age a-Churchmen State
Abstracts stage b-Lawyers
3-Scientific or Industrialization a-Industrial Entire Human Race (1)The
Positive stage administrator Theological stage
b- scientific moral refers to
guides explanation by
personified deities. During the earlier stages, people believe that all the phenomena of nature are the creation
of the divine or supernatural. Men and children failed to discover the natural causes of various phenomena
and hence attributed them to supernatural or divine power Comte broke this stage into 3 sub-stages:

A. Fetishism - Fetishism was the primary stage of the theological stage of thinking. Throughout this stage,
primitive people believe that inanimate objects have living spirit in them, also known as animism. People
worship inanimate objects like trees, stones, a piece of wood, volcanic eruptions, etc.
B. Polytheism - The explanation of things through the use of many Gods. Primitive people believe that all
natural forces are controlled by different Gods; a few examples would be God of water, God of rain, God of
fire, God of air, God of earth, etc.

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C. Monotheism - Monotheism means believing in one God or God in one; attributing all to a single,
supreme deity. Primitive people believe a single theistic entity is responsible for the existence of the
universe.

(2) The Metaphysical stage is the extension of the theological stage. Metaphysical stage refers to
explanation by impersonal abstract concepts. People often tried to believe that God is an abstract being.They
believe that an abstract power or force guides and determines events in the world. Metaphysical thinking
discards belief in a concrete God. The nature of inquiry was legal and rational in nature. For example: In
Classical Hindu Indian society the principle of the transmigration of the soul, the conception of rebirth .
(3) The Positive stage, also known as the scientific stage, refers to scientific explanation based on
observation, experiment, and comparison. Positive explanations rely upon a distinct method, the scientific
method, for their justification. Today people attempt to establish cause and effect relationships. Positivism is
a purely intellectual way of looking at the world; as well, it emphasizes observation and classification of
data and facts. This is the highest, most evolved behavior according to Comte.

B- Religion of Humanity

 Comte founded a new religion called the “religion of humanity”.

 This religion of humanity is the scientific interpretation of religion.
Religion of Humanity:
 In theological stage, super natural forces were the object of worship and God was everything.
 But in scientific religion, God is replaced by humanity.
 Humanity will be worshipped.
 Humanity consists of all those who are dead and who are living and who would be born in future.
Religion of Humanity love mankind Live for others Love and affection

1-love mankind Comte put emphasis on those who are dead and those who had sacrificed their life for the
welfare of mankind. He told to “love mankind.” In religion of humanity selfishness is sin; sacrifice is a way
of salvation. He puts emphasis on altruism. You must live for others and not for yourself. Comte got the idea
of religion of humanity from Feuerbach.
2-Live for others-Comte believed that society which was built in scientific principles needed very badly a
religion called religion of humanity. The egoistic tendencies of mankind as evinced in previous history
would be replaced by altruism and by the command “Live for others”. Men would be imbued with love for
their fellowmen.
3-Love and affection-Comte at this stage made “Love and affection” the central points of human life,
Comte not only considered himself a social scientist, but a prophet and founder of new religion that
promised salvation for all ailments of mankind. He made a purely social religion. Mankind was an end in
itself.
Salient features of Religion of Humanity

1- A Religion without God -

 Comte's "Religion of Humanity " is based on morality and religion, and not upon a belief in God .
 The object of worship should be' Love mankind' and not God .
 The main slogan of the Comtean religion is We should have religion but not God.
 Priest serve as the moral guides of the Comtean concept of a new society.
 Comte believed that the society based upon scientific principles needed a religion which called a
Religion of Humanity.
 He wanted that a society should be directed by the spiritual power of priests of the new positive
religion and leaders of banking and industry.
 Priest use their" superior knowledge to recall men to their duties and obligations" .
 They work as directors of education and the supreme judges of the abilities of each member of the
society.
2- New Religion would lead to a new Epoch--
 Comte made "Love and affection " the central points of his religion .

9
  There should be harmony, equity.
 The new epoch, according to Comte "Would have love as its principle, order as its basis, and
programme as its aim. Individual men should have a love for their fellows.
3- Religion of Humanity- a social religion based upon morality--
 Comte was not only a social scientist but also a prophet and founder of a new religion .
 He considered salvation as the end of all the miseries of mankind.
 Comte thus, wanted to create a purely "Social religion".
4- Comte not in favour of traditional Christianity--
 According to Comte, Christianity is purely religion, and lacking in social elements.
 A true religion must embody the principle of social utility also Christianity fails to serve this
purpose. so there must be a social religion .
 the Religion of Humanity Comte believed that Christianity employed the instruments of political
pressure and tyranny in order to gain support of people to Christian religion.
 Comte did not see the social element in Christianity.
5- Comtean religion is virtually a religion of human unity--
 Comte is the sociologist of human unity .
 Comte wanted men to be united by common belief , harmony sympathy and love for all .
Conclusion --
Comte believed that there is the need for the Religion of Humanity. because society can only reformed by
the greater sub-ordination of politics to morals by the moralization of capital, by the renovation of family ,
by a higher conception of marriage and so on . These ends can be reached only by a heartier development of
the feelings of sympathy and the sympathetic feeling can be developed only by the Religion of Humanity.
Q.2. Examine Durkheim’s theory of suicide

Ans. Suicide (French: Le Suicide) was a groundbreaking book in the field of sociology. Written by French
sociologist Émile Durkheim and published in 1897 it was ostensibly a case study of suicide,

Durkheim attributes suicide to be related to two underlying social facts Integration and Regulation.

Integration refers to strength of attachment that we feel towards society .

Regulation is the degree of external constraints on people.

Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing that stronger social
control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim, Catholic society has normal
levels of integration while Protestant society has low levels.
Durkheim concluded that:
 Suicide rates are higher in men than women (although married women who remained childless for a
number of years ended up with a high suicide rate).
 Suicide rates are higher for those who are single than those who are married.
 Suicide rates are higher for people without children than people with children.
 Suicide rates are higher among Protestants than Catholics and Jews.
 Suicide rates are higher among soldiers than civilians.
 Suicide rates are higher in times of peace than in times of war .
 The higher the education level, the more likely it was that an individual would choose suicide.
However, Durkheim established that there is more correlation between an individual's religion and
suicide rate than an individual's education level. Jewish people were generally highly educated but
had a low suicide rate.

Types of suicide, Durkheim defines suicide as follows:

The term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative
act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this.He also distinguished between four types of
suicide (but basically three, egoistic, altruistic, anomic)

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 Suicide

Egoistic Suicide
Altruistic Suicide Anomic Suicide
Fatalistic Suicide

Obligating Altruistic Suicide

Acute Altruistic Suicide
Optional Altruistic Suicide

 Egoistic suicide reflects a prolonged sense of not belonging, of not being integrated in a community,
an experience, of not having a tether: an absence that can give rise to meaninglessness, apathy,
melancholy, and depression. It is the result of a weakening of the bonds that normally integrate
individuals into the collectivity: in other words a breakdown or decrease of social integration.
Durkheim refers to this type of suicide as the result of "excessive individuation", meaning that the
individual becomes increasingly detached from other members of his community. Those individuals
who were not sufficiently bound to social groups (and therefore well-defined values, traditions,
norms, and goals) were left with little social support or guidance, and therefore tended to commit
suicide on an increased basis. An example Durkheim discovered was that of unmarried people,
particularly males, who, with less to bind and connect them to stable social norms and goals,
committed suicide at higher rates than married people.
 Altruistic suicide is characterized by a sense of being overwhelmed by a group's goals and beliefs. It
occurs in societies with high integration, where individual needs are seen as less important than the
society's needs as a whole. They thus occur on the opposite integration scale as egoistic suicide. As
individual interest would not be considered important, Durkheim stated that in an altruistic society
there would be little reason for people to commit suicide. He stated one exception, namely when the
individual is expected to kill themselves on behalf of society – a primary example being the soldier
in military service. Further in Altruistic suicide also:-
*Obligating Altruistic Suicide. Compulsory for giving a moral & good lesson to the society .
Example-.Jauhar.
*Optional Altruistic Suicide. For the welfare of society (willingly). Example.-Life sacrificed by a
soldier.
*Acute Altruistic Suicide. For self, which will a a moral message to society. Example-Sanlekhna
in Jainism

 Anomic suicide reflects an individual's moral confusion and lack of social direction, which is related
to dramatic social and economic upheaval. It is the product of moral deregulation and a lack of
definition of legitimate aspirations through a restraining social ethic, which could impose meaning
and order on the individual conscience. This is symptomatic of a failure of economic development
and division of labour to produce Durkheim's organic solidarity. People do not know where they fit
in within their societies. Durkheim explains that this is a state of moral disorder where man does not
know the limits on his desires, and is constantly in a state of disappointment. This can occur when
man goes through extreme changes in wealth; while this includes economic ruin, it can also include
windfall gains – in both cases, previous expectations from life are brushed aside and new
expectations are needed before he can judge his new situation in relation to the new limits.
 Fatalistic suicide occurs when a person is excessively regulated, when their futures are pitilessly
blocked and passions violently choked by oppressive disciplineIt is the opposite of Anomic suicide,
and appears in overly oppressive societies, causing people to prefer to die than to carry on living
within their society. A good example would be within a prison; some people might prefer to die than
live in a prison with constant abuse and excessive regulation that prohibits them from pursuing their
desires.

Conclusion

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 These four types of suicide are based on the degrees of imbalance of two social forces:
social integration and moral regulation. Durkheim noted the effects of various crises on social aggregates –
war, for example, leading to an increase in altruism, economic boom or disaster contributing to anomie

Short Notes.
1. Class struggle
While man, in the Maxian View, is generally a social animal, he is, more specifically and fundamentally a
“class animal.”
In the most primitive people used to appropriate nature’s goods for satisfying their needs.
Distribution was ore or less equal. But soon the differences in distribution emerged and with it
society was divided into classes.
“Society divides itself into classes, the privileged and the dispossessed the exploiters and exploited,
the rulers and the ruled. ”
As regards the classes of modern society, there are according to Marx, three great classes based on
their respective sources of income.
The owners of mere labor-power, the owners of capital, and the landlords, whose respective
sources of income are wages. Profit and ground-rent; in other words, wage laborers, Capitalists and
landlords, form the three great classes of modern society resting upon the capitalist mode of
production.
Marx believed that human society evolves through different stages according to the means of
Production that is dominant at each stage:
1. Primitive communism (there is no Private Property)
2. Slavery (One class owns and exploits the members of another)
3. Feudalism (Class of aristocratic landlords exploits the mass of the peasants)
4. Capitalism (The owners of wealth exploit the mass of industrial workers.)
Each of these systems is more economically productive then its predecessor, but the tensions of
class conflict lead to revolution that results in the fifth stage.
5. Socialism ( It occurs when the industrial workers have finally revolted.

Marxian Theory of Class-Conflict

In the Capitalist Society, the bourgeois and Proletariat are dependent upon each other. However, the
mutual dependency of the two classes is not a relationship of equality and of respectable reciprocity, instead,
it is a relationship of exploiter and exploited, oppressor and oppressed. The Capitalist class (the ruling class)
gains at the expense of the labor class (the subject class) and there is therefore a conflict of interest between
them. Marx developed his theory of class conflict in his analysis and antique of capitalist society.
The main ingredient of this theory of conflict have been enlisted here :
1. The Development of the Proletariat
2. The Importance of Poverty
3. The Identification of Economics and Political power and Authority
4. Polarization of classes
5. The theory of Surplus value
6. Pauperization
7. Alienation
8. Class solidarity and Antagonism
9. Revolution
10. The Dictatorship of the Proletariat

2.DURKHEIM’s Theory of Division of Labour

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Durkheim’s Theory of Division of Labour in society tried to determine the social
consequences of the division of labour in modern societies.

Durkheim mechanical solidarity refers to ‘social solidarity’ based upon a homogeneity

of values and behaviour strong social constraint and loyalty to tradition and kinship. The
term applied to small, non literate societies characterised by a simple division of labour, very
little specialization of function only a few social roles and very little tolerance of
individuality.

Organic solidarity is almost the opposite of mechanical solidarity. According to

Durkheim increasing density of population is the major key to the development of division of
labour. Organic solidarity emerges with the growth of the division of labour. This especially
is witnessed in the modern industrial societies. Division of labour and the consequent
dissimilarities among men bring about increasing interdependence in society. The
interdependence is reflected in human mentality and morality and in the fact of organic
solidarity itself.

“Division of labour is a rational device contrived by men to increase the output of the
collectivity.”

Abraham and Morgan

3. Authority
According to Weber, “Authority means the probability that a specific command will be obeyed. Such
obedience may feed on diverse motives.
It may be determined by Sheer interest situation, hence by the compliant actor’s calculation
of expediency; by mere customs, that is, the actor’s inarticulate habituation to routine behavior, or by
mere affect, that is purely personal devotion of the governed.”
Weber is of the opinion that all authority ultimately rests on force. For any social and
political system this force must be recognized as legitimate.
According to Weber, there are three fundamental ways in which authority based on force is
legitimized.

Thus , there are three types of authority which exemplify it viz;

1. Rational legal Authority
2. Traditional Authority
3. Charismatic Authority
a) Legal Authority-in Weber’s own words, rests on the belief in the legality of a consciously
created order and of the right to give commands vested in the person or persons designed by
that order.
b) He states that traditional authority rests on the general and continuous belief in the sacredness
of settled traditions and the legitimacy of the person or persons called to authority of such
traditions.
c) Charismatic authority rests on the uncommon and extra-ordinary devotion to the sacredness
or the heroic force or the exe-plariness of an individual and the order revealed or created by
him.
The characteristics of all these three of authority are elaborated in detail in the ensuring
discussion.

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 c
LL.B (Hons) Sociology-I 1st Semester Unit- III (2019)

Q.1-What do you understand by Social change and difference between Social and Cultural change ?
Ans. Meaning of Social Change –Change which occurs in the society, any alteration, difference or
modification that takes place in a situation or in an object through time can be called change. The term
‘social change’ is used to indicate the changes, that takes place in human interactions and interrelations.
Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or socio-cultural evolution, the philosophical
idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic
change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism.
Society is a web of social relationships and hence ‘Social change’ obviously means a change in the system
of social relationship. Social relationships are understood in terms of social process and social interactions
and social organization. Thus the term ‘social change’ is used to desirable variations in social interaction,
social process and social organization. It includes alteration in the structure and functions of the
society.Social change refers to the changes that come about in the society in relation to human relationships
and social institutions. When looking at human history you will notice that no society remains unchanged.
With the passing of time ever society undergoes changes, this leads to a transformation in the society. Social
changes occur mainly due to the changes that take place in social institutions. In every society, there are a
number of social institutions such as the family, economy, religion, politics and education. It is the
interconnected functioning of these institutions that create a society. Man is a dynamic being hence society
can never be static it undergoes variations

Definitions
M.F. Jones :“Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any aspect of
social patterns, social interaction or Social organization.”
Kingsley Davis-“By Social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social organization, that is
structure and functions of Society. ”
MacIver & Page-“Social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes; to change in
the manmade condition of Life; to change in the attitudes and beliefs of men and to the changes that
to beyond the human control to the biological and the physical nature of things.

Nature of social change

1-It is a social process.
2-Social change is universal in nature.
3- Social change is a continuous process
4-Occurs in each and every society
5-Time factor
Patterns of social change-

Patterns of Social change

Cyclical change Linear or one directional change

Spengler, Parcto that societies evolve from one stage to
Sorokin, Toynbee the other, following a definite course
These thinkers believe that to the final stage of perfection.
Societies exist at certain -> Augustcoante – mental
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Point of circle of evolution, development -> theological
Progress or retrogress through metaphysical, positive.
other points in the circle and -> Spencer – militant society to
return back to original or the industrial society
same position
Spengler –
Death
Oldage Birth

Youth
Maturity
Social Change

Toynbee : Toynbee’s views are more optimistic than those of spengler’s for he does not
believe that all civilizations will inevitably decay. He has pointed out that history is a series
of cycles of decay and growth. But each new civilization is able to learn from the mistakes
and to borrow from cultures of others. It is therefore possible for each new cycle to offer
higher levels of achievement. Still he was not explained why some societies are able to offer
effective responses to their challenges while other do not, or why a society should overcome
one challenge but become a victim of another.

Sorokin – Sorokin in his book ‘Social and Culture Dynamics’ 1938 has offered another
explanation of social change. His work has had a more lasting impact on Sociological
thinking. Instead of viewing civilizations into terms of development and decline he proposed
that they alternate or fluctuate between two cultural extremes: The sensate and the Ideational.
Cultural development is then reversed moving towards the other societies contain both these
impulses in varying degree and the tension between then creates long term instability. This is
a happy and a desirable blend of the other two but no society ever seems to have achieved it
as a stable condition.

Spengler : ‘The Destiny of Civilizations’ Spengler in his book ‘The Decline of the west’
1918 pointed out that the fate of civilizations was a matter of destiny. Each civilization is
like a biological organism and has a similar life cycle birth maturity, old age and death.

Spengler developed another version of cyclical theory of social change he analysed the
history of various civilizations including the Egyptian, Greek and Roman and concluded that
all civilizations pass through a similar cycle of birth maturity and death. The western
civilization is now on its decline which is unavoidable.
1-Cyclical change 2- Linear or one-directional change

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Factor of social change-
1-Cultural, 2-Modernisation, 3-Invention/Innovation, 4-Physical Environment
5- Urbanisation, 6-Technological 7- Biological, 8-Psychological factors etc

Culture
The word culture is understood to mean beautiful, refined or interesting but this interpretation does not
constitute its scientific definition. Culture is a complex whole which includes all attributes of society.
According to Tylor- “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals
law, custom and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
According to White- “Culture is a symbolic, continuous, cumulative and progressive process.”
Culture includes all that man acquired in the mental and intellectual sphere of his individual and social life.
In the words of MacIver and Page, “This is the realm of styles, of values, of emotional attachments, of
intellectual adventures. Culture, then, is the antithesis of civilization. It is the expression of our nature
in our modes of living and thinking, in our everyday intercourse, in art, in literature, in recreation
and enjoyment.”
 Characteristics of Culture
1-Culture is an acquired quality.
2-Culture is communicative.
3-Culture is social, not individual.
4-Culture is idealistic.
5-Culture fulfills some needs.
6-Culture has the quality of becoming integrated.
7-Culture has the quality of adaptation.
 Elements of culture-
1-Material Element 2-Non-Material Element-
 Element of culture-
1-Material Element-such element and thing that people attach meaning to and use that element according
to such defined meaning like machine, utensils, clothes, medicine etc ,
2-Non-Material Element-Such element or a set of abstract thing that an individual create for the defining or
explaining and communicating what they do and how they live. Examples- norms, belief, values, folkways,
mores.
Cultural Lag
The word lag connotes crippled movement. Hence cultural lag means the faltering of one aspect
of culture behind another. The term Cultural Lag originated in a famous sociologist W.F. Ogburn’s treatise
entitled “Social Change”. According to him, when material culture moves ahead of non material culture,
then it creates a gap in between these two elements of culture, this gap is known as cultural lag. Thus the
non- material part of culture lags behind.
Cultural Change- Cultural change refers to the changes that come about in both the material and non-
material cultural elements. As we all know culture refers to the system of values, attitudes, norms, mores,
practices, behaviors of a group of people. In this sense, culture is a social construct that assists a society to
continue. Unlike in the case of social change, in cultural change, an ideological transformation takes place.
The impact of technology, ideology, new practices, and lifestyles can lead to a cultural change. Cultural
change is thus much broader than the social change. No part of culture is totally unrelated to the social order,
but it remains true that changes sometimes occur in these branches without notice by affecting the social
system.
Culture include social heritage of beliefs tradition, custom, moral, knowledge etc that is passed on from one
generation to another.
Difference between Social & Cultural Change
Although some believe that social change and cultural change can be used interchangeably as they are very
much connected, there is a clear difference between cultural and social change. The reason as to why some
consider social change and cultural change as similar is because human culture is also a construct of society.
Hence, cultural change leads to social change. However, in order to comprehend the distinction between
social change and cultural change, we should first define the two terms. Social change should be understood
as the changes that come about in the society, in relation to human relationships and social institutions. On
the other hand, cultural change refers to the changes that come about in both the material and nonmaterial
cultural elements. This is the key difference between social change and cultural change. When material

16
culture moves ahead of non material culture then it creates a gap between these two elements of culture, then
it is known as Cultural Lag.
The difference between Social and Cultural change has a great Sociological importance. By “Social
Change” is meant only such alteration as occurs in Social Organization that is, Structure and functions of
Society. The term “Cultural change” according to Kingsley Davis, “embraces all changes occurring in
any branch of culture including art, Science, technology, Philosophy, etc, as well as changes in the
forms and rules of Social organization.” As he says, Cultural change is broader than Social change, and
Social change is only a part of it.
All Social changes are cultural changes, but all cultural changes need not necessarily be the Social changes.
Cultural changes can be called social changes only when they affect human relations and the social
organization and cause some variation in them. On the other hand, the rise of organized labor in the
capitalistic Society and the introduction of communism in the place of democracy, represent social change.
These two changes may cause a series of changes in human relation and organization. They represent a basic
alteration in the relation of employer and employee, rulers and the ruled. They may contribute to the changes
in the economic organization the changes in the economic organization, methods of Administration,
legislation, economic policies and programs, and so on.

Key Points-Social Change Vs Cultural Change

1-Cultural change is a very broad and dynamic change. 2-Social change is only a part of cultural change. 3-
Cultural change includes change in ideology, administration and social change refers to changes in social
relationship among people 4-Social change is all about improvements made to uplift certain life style. 5-
Cultural change gives new direction to social change. 6-Cultural change could be material or non-material.

Q. 2. Discuss the concept of social control. Examine the role of religion in social control.

Ans. Meaning of Social Control

Social Control is the control over the individual; some of man’s tendencies are beneficial to society while
others are detrimental to its interest. Social control may be a self control and it keeps on changing in
accordance with the changes in society.
Definition
MacIver and Page-“ By social control is meant, the way in which the entire social order coheres and
maintain itself, how it operates as a whole, as a changing equilibrium.”

Social Control is a comprehensive phenomenon, it has both positive and negative as well as creative
aspects. Social control works to maintain the equilibrium of society and prevent the unacceptable behavior
of the individual or group. Social control not only controls the human behavior but also governs and guides
the human tendencies by creating a pattern of norms as according to which the human being behaves.

Types of Social Control-

According to Karl Mannheim, there are two types of social control-

1-Direct Social Control
2-Indirect Social control

Kimball Young also defined the two types of social control-

1-Positive Social Control
2-Negative Social Control
According to Karl Mannheim:-
Direct Social Control

The control exercised upon the individual by the reactions of the people living in proximity, such control
is visible in family, neighborhood and other primary group. This control is clearly visible in the society.

Indirect Social Control

17
 The control exercised upon the individual by factors which are separated from him.
Prominent means are tradition, customs, values etc. Here social control is sometimes not visible.

According to Kimball Young

Positive Social Control

The control over the individual by motivating him in a positive manner by reward or
appreciation. These rewards/appreciation constantly endeavor to conform to the traditions, values, mores,
ideals etc.
Negative Social Control
The control exercised over the individual by the use of punishment or by the fear of
defamation which will make a negative image of individual, that control is regarded as negative social
control.
Agencies of Social Control
1-Religion
2-Family
3-Institutions (Religious, Socio-Economic, Political)
4-State
5-Public Opinion

Role Of Religion In Social Control

Meaning of Religion- Religion is a powerful agency of social control in society . It influences man’s
behavior. Religion is what, that controls and limits the human behavior and action and turns the individual
towards the values and morals. Men should do good act is a common teaching of all the religion .Religion
makes people charitable and truthful.

Definition of Religion
The term religion has numerous definitions:-

According to Ogburn-“Religion is an attitude towards superhuman powers” .

According to Durkheim-“ Religion is what that distincts between sacred and profane”
. It expresses itself in several forms like superstition. Animism, Totemism, Magic and Fetishism .Religion
assigns great importance to ceremonies. At the time of birth , marriage and death a number of ceremonies
are performed .Mantra are recited even if one does not understand their meaning.Though religion is a highly
personal thing yet it has a social aspect and social role to play. It has been a powerful agency in society and
performed many important Social function.

According to Arnold W. Green religion has three universal functions-

1) It rationalizes and makes bearable individual suffering in the known world.
2) It enhances self importance.
3) It helps to knit the Social Values of a society into cohesive whole.

Theories of Origin of Religion

1. Fetishism : Fetishism has been defined both as religion and as magic. It is the most primitive form of
religion. It endows objects with supernatural or mystical powers for good or evil. The person who
possesses the fetish can ward off bad luck and will have good fortunes. Hence fetishism is nothing
but the adoration of material things because of their mysterious power.
2. Animism : The theory of animism is the work of Tylar and may be found in his ‘Primitive culture’.
According to Tylar animism is essentially a belief in the spirit of the dead. Tylor argued that early
men had a need to explain dreams shadows, hallucinations, sleep and death. The need to understand
such phenomenon led to the belief in the existence of the soul or an indwelling personality.

18
Totemism – Members of the tribal group affiliate themselves with the totem. The totem is a collective
religious object having supernatural or mysterious powers for the group. Totem is associated with tribal
organization and it becomes the name of the tribe an image of the totemic spirit and animal or plant with
which the tribe identifies.

The Functional Theory

The basis assumption of the Functionalist approach to religion is that religion is universally found
because it has a vital function in maintaining the social system as a whole. The main social requirement that
religion is deemed to fulfil has been ‘the necessity of ideological and sentimental cohesion or solidarity.’

Durkheim – His theory of religion got its proper form in his famous book ‘The elementary forms of religious
life.’

Durkheim in his study stressed the social role or functions of the most simple form of religion called
totemism of Australian Aborigines. The totem as it noted already denotes a common object such as an
animal or a plant and a symbol representing that it is sacred. The totem then is sacred but is also the symbol
of society itself. Durkheim concluded that when people worship religion they are really worshipping nothing
more than their own society. The kingdom of heaven is glorified society.

Religion As An Agency Of Social Control-

Religion is one of the most important and ancient means of social control. It act
as an agency of social control in the society. The control of religion over individual is very strong, it act
as a constraint factor in the society. Religion not only consists of controlling element but also governing
and guiding element. Every religion has its own laws, regulations and behavior patterns which limits the
human action and it totally depends upon the element of obedience and acceptance.The base of religion
consists of laws, customs, norms etc which further leads the connotation of divine displeasure or
sufferings, the concept of heaven and hell mentioned by the religion also makes the individual to
perform action in a just manner, by obeying the laws imposed by the religious institutions. The agency
of religion solely depends upon the idea of social acceptance. Religion Controls and effects economic
life also,-Max Weber view regarding religion was that , religion also influences the economic
system of the society.A common characteristic found among all religions is that it represent a complex
of emotional feelings and attitudes towards mysteries of life .Religion comprises first system of attitudes,
beliefs, symbols which are based on the assumption that certain kinds of social relations are sacred or
morally imperative, and a second structure of activites governed or influenced by these system.Thus
religion is the Supremely integrating and unifying force in human society. But at the same time has also
proved a catastrophic force that’s why Marx said that -“ Religion is opium for masses”.

Ques-3.What are the Means of Social Control. Define public opinion and evaluate means which help
in the formation of strong public opinion.

Ans-3. Social Control is the control over the individual; some of man’s tendencies are beneficial to society
while others are detrimental to its interest. Social control may be a self control and it keeps on changing in
accordance with the changes in society. There are various means of social control in the society.

Means of Social Control

1. Customs
2. Public Opinion
3. Family
4. Education
5. Law
6. Communal Codes
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Meaning of Public- The word public is generally used to large group of people. It is some time used as
synonymous with crowd. The member of the public need not to collect together in one place. They may be
dispersed and not known to each other .

According to Anderson and Parker-“A public is that form of collectivity which includes a number of
dispersed and non –organized individuals who are faced with an issue about which there may be
differences of opinion”.

Meaning of Opinion- Opinion is a belief about a controversial topic. Generally, what passes on for opinion
is one’s impression, sentiment or prejudice. Opinion implies careful thought and consideration. It is founded
on some kind of information or evidence. It is not necessary that opinion should always be correct, it may
even be faulty.
Public Opinion- The desires, wants, and thinking of the majority of the people is called public opinion. Or
the collective opinion of the people of a society or state on an issue or problem . The English term "public
opinion" dates back to the seventeenth century work by John Locke’s, “An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding”, which contains an early consideration of the importance of public opinion in the ordering
of politics. The term was derived from the French word l’opinion, which was first used in 1588
by Michel de Montaigne.

According to Kimball Young-“An opinion is a belief somewhat stronger or more intense than a mere
notion or impression but less stronger than positive knowledge based on complete or adequate proof”.
According to Kimball Young-“ An opinion is a belief somewhat stronger or more intense than a mere
notion or impression but less stronger than positive knowledge based on complete or adequate
proof”.
Public opinion may be defined as the opinion of the people held by them on any issue for the
welfare of the whole community. Public opinion is a flow of ideas which is accepted by the majority via
means of communication. Legislature in modern times is the most effective agency for the expression of
Public opinion but the legislature itself is not without the influenced of the people outside. There are several
ways in which people or groups try to influence legislation by the public opinion. Many of the nations
before formulating the laws, considers the public opinion. For a, strong public opinion, there must be a
general agreement of majority of people over a topic or a subject which is in regard to the public.
Newspapers, journals, magazines etc are the prime platform to present the public opinion and when the
majority of people agree upon an opinion, then it turns into a strong public opinion. Strong public opinion is
heavily guided by the mass acceptance over a fact and which is in accordance to the majority. Mass media,
internet, newspapers etc, plays a key role in forming a strong public opinion. Processes of public opinion
hold the society together. Spirals of silence solve conflicts that would threat society, if they remained
unsolved. Additionally, phenomena of 'solid public opinion' like customs and manners are part of the
foundations of any society. Every individual is anxious not to isolate himself and not to endanger the
damageable social bond that connects him with others .Therefore the individual constantly observes his
social environment to gain information on opinions and behavior he could express publically(or should
avoid in public), without risking social isolation. This is due to the 'social nature' of every human being, the
need for a good relationship to others. The general acceptance of views by the majority of people over a
particular topic or subject forms a strong public opinion, which not only governs the individual or group but
also controls the individual behavior and actions.

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