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Chapter- 1
Meaning of sociology
Applied Sociology
• The term sociology is derived from Latin word “socius/ societus” which means
Civil 7th society and the Greek word “Logos” which means study or science.

Semester • The term sociology was first used by French Philosopher Auguste Comte at about
1839 A.D. So he is called the father of sociology .
• He define sociology as a science of social phenomena.
• He define its scope, subject-matter and study method.
• He divided sociology into two parts:-social statics and social dynamics.
• Emile Durkheim , Herbert Spencer, Max Weber contributed their best idea to
develop sociology as a scientific discipline . So they are called founding father of
sociology.

• Sociology is the systematic study of nature and development of
society , its composition and function.
• It studies social behavior in groups.
• It always concentrates to the study and analysis of social phenomena.
• It is a science that usages various scientific methods to develop a
body of knowledge about social evolution , social stability and social
change.
• It studies about rules of behavior in group, law , religion , problems ,
revolution , achievements etc.
Definition of sociology
• Auguste Comte defines that sociology is the science of social phenomena,
subject to natural and invariable laws , the discover of which is the subject
of investigation.
• According to L.F. Ward “sociology is the science of society or of social
phenomena”
• A.M. Rose said that sociology is the science of human relations.
• Herbert Spencer defines that sociology is the study of interrelationship
between different parts of society.
• Alex Inkelese, “sociology is the study of systems of social actions and their
interrelations .”
• Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the study of human interactions and
interrelations, their condition and consequences.”

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In conclusion,
• Sociology is the science of social actions and interactions in social
group.
• It is the study of social institutions and social process.
• It is the science of nature , structure and dynamics of human society.
• It is the systematic study of causes and consequences of human
behavior.
• It is the study of human social heritage.
• It is the study of life and activities of man.
• Actually, it is the scientific study of man , his social behavior and his
society.
Is sociology a science?
• Science is a method of study where by a body of organized and verified
knowledge is discovered.
• It is a body of systematically arranged knowledge which has been
developed through scientific investigation.
• On the basis of reliability of its body of knowledge , its organization and its
method, sociology is a science because,
• It Provides reliable knowledge with power of generalization.
• It has its own organization of knowledge with reason and evidences.
• It used scientific methods
• It has its own laboratory
• It has its own terminology
• It has its own limitation.
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• Characteristics/ nature of sociology
• Sociology is a social science not a physical science.
• It is pure science not an applied science.
• It is both empirical and rational science.
• It is an independent science.
• It is relatively an abstract science.
• It is general science.
• None of the method is universal in in this subject.
• The findings of sociology are less exacts and less precise
• It is multi-dimensional social science.
• Controlled observation is almost impossible in this subject.
Scope of sociology
• There are two main school of thought regarding the scope of sociology.
1. Formalistic school of thought:-
i. George Simmel, Max Weber, Small Tonnies e.t.c are the leader of this
school of thought
ii. According to them sociology is pure and independent science.
iii. It should study the “forms” of social relationship not its content.
iv. It is special social science
v. It should confine itself to the limited fields i.e. forms of social
relationship
vi. There are other social sciences to deal different fields of social life.
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Subject- matter of sociology

2. Synthetic school of thought:-
• Emile Durkheim, P.A. Sorokin, L. T. Hobuse , Morris Ginsberg e.t.c are
the follower of this school of thought.
• According to them sociology is general science.
• It should study all aspects of social life.
• It has wider scope.
• Society is like a human body.
• Without knowing different aspects of social life , sociology can not
understand society.
• Following are some common subject- matter of sociology
1. Primary units of social life ( social groups, organizations etc).
2. Social institutions ( family, religion, education, constitution etc).
3. Fundamental social process( cooperation, conflict,assimilation etc).
4. Social analysis.
5. Social concepts and social theories.
6. Methods of social research.
The main subject-matter of sociology are,
a. How and societies are emerge?
b. How and why societies are persist?
c. How and why societies are change?
Intimate family relationship to hostile mob, two persons interactions to computer
network, religious beliefs to organized crime, different types of invention and its
impact upon society etc are the subject- matter of sociology.

Evolution of sociology
Sub-division/ branches of sociology • Sociology is originated by the efforts of Auguste Comte in 1839 A.D.
• It has a long past but short history because the historical roots of
sociology goes back to the dawn of human civilization but it
• Historical sociology established as a separate science in 1839 A.D.
• Sociology of Law • Before Comte many thinkers, philosopher , writers tries to explain
• Political sociology human society and culture of their time.
• Sociology of Religion • There are some factors lead to the development of sociology
• Rural sociology. • Industrial revolution
• Urban sociology. • French and American revolution
• Growth of natural science
• Medical sociology. • Colonialism
• Sociology of development • Contribution of intellectuals etc
• Sociology of engineering etc…..

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Generally we can divided the historical development of sociology into TWO
stages;
1. Before Auguste Comte
2. After Auguste Comte
Before Auguste Comte
• In ancient period( up to 5th century)Greek philosopher Plato, Aristotle ,Roman
thinker Cicero , Eastern thinker Manu , Kautilya , Confucius etc. tries to explain
human social life . In their book they tries to explain social phenomena, Family
life, custom , tradition etc. which are relevant to the development of sociology.
• During the medieval age and early modern period (600-1800 A.D.) religion,
religious teacher, religious thought played dominant role to explain man and his
behaviour .But after 13th century intellectuals such as Thomas Aquinas ,Dante,
Adam smith, Thomas More , Rousseau ,Malthas , Montesquieu , Vico etc
contributed their best thinking to explain human’s social nature.
• Scientific methodology was used to study different social phenomena.
• Different social sciences were developed and the infrastructure of sociology has
been established .
Academic development of sociology.
• The formal study of sociology was started in USA in 1876
A.D.
• In Nepal sociology entered early 1950’ at research level and
1981 A.D. at teaching level.
• Now it is being taught in medical field , engineering field,
agriculture , management etc as one of the basic subject.
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After Auguste Comte ( 19th century to onwrds)
• At the middle of the 19th century the term sociology was coined.
• Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber contributed a lot to develop sociology
as a separate social science.
• In the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of 20th century to till date a
large number of sociologist contributed their best idea to the development of
sociology.
• In France ;Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, In Germany ; Karl Marx, Max Weber , In
USA L.H. Morgan , R.K. Merton ,Talcott Parsons etc contributed to the development
of sociology.
• Eastern thinkers (Indian) such as R.K. Mukherjee , M.N. Srinivas , D.N. Mukherjee etc
contributed to the development of sociology by research and writings
• Nepalese scholars Prof. Dr. Chaitanya Mishra, Prof. Dr. Om Gurung, Prof. Dr. Bihari
Krishana Shrestha , Prof. Dr. Dor Bahadur Bista Prof .Dr. Ganesh man Gurung, Mashes
Chandra Regmi Prof. Gopal Sing Nepali etc enrich the subject by their research and
writings.
Relationship of sociology with other sciences.
• All sciences are intimately interrelated with each other.
• They deals with the life and activities of man relating with
surroundings .
• Different sciences used interdisciplinary approach to study and
understand social as well as natural phenomena.
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To seek the relationship of sociology with other sciences , we

used some basic parameters.
Relationship of sociology with History

• Give and take relationship.

• Subject- matter • History is the systematic records of events ,achievements and
experiences of human past.
• Methodology. • It is the store house of records and treasury of knowledge.
• Nature of knowledge. • It is the study of historical development of society.
• It is a branch of knowledge which study different events, experiences
and achievements of human past.

Similarities between sociology and history. Difference between sociology and History
• History supplies various information about the historical development of
society to sociologist.
• Both are social science. sociology History
• Both have common subject matter such as human’s social development, • It is Scientific study of society. • It is the systematic study of
• It is analytical science. historical events.
modes of living, socio-political change and its impact upon society.
• It studies present events with • It is descriptive science
• Both used some common methodology such as observation , case study,
comparison method etc. complexity . • It studies past event with date
• Both generate inaccurate and debatable knowledge. • It used questionnaire interview • It used chronology , inscription ,
method to find out the facts coin method to find out the reality.
• Sociology cannot be separated from history and history can not be isolated • Test and retest is possible in this • Test and re-test is almost
from sociology because both provide sociological bag round and historical subject. Impossible.
data and facts to each other. • It has wider scope. • It has narrow scope
• G.E. Howard said that history is the past sociology and sociology is the • It is young science • It is older than sociology .
present history.

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• Sociology and Economics are closely related science

Relationship of sociology with Economics
• What is sociology?
(Short paragraph)
• What is economics?
• Economics is the science of wealth and it deals with production, distribution,
exchange and consumption of goods and services.
• It is the science of economic organization and their functions.
• It is the scientific study of use and exchange scarce resources.
because,
• Economy is a part of society and without the study of
economic factors , the study of society is impossible.
• Social relationship are affected by economic activities and
economic activities are determined by socio-cultural
practices.
• MacIver said that all economic parameters and social
behavior are determine by socio- economic system.
• Karl Marx remarked that each and every social phenomena
are determine by economic factors.

Similarities between sociology and economics Difference between sociology and economics

sociology economics
• Both are social science and studies different socio-
economic activities by taking help from each other. • It is the science of social • It is the science of wealth.
relationship. • Special science
• Both have some common subject-matter such as poverty,
• General science. • Concrete
unemployment, crime, corruption, occupation, division of
labour property system demand and supply income etc . • Abstract in nature. • Narrow
• Both used some common methodology such as survey, • Wider scope. • Old
interview etc. • Young science. • Production, distribution,
• Both tries to describe and analyze socio- economic life of • Human’s social behavior is core exchange of goods and services
human society. subject-matter. are the core subject-matter.

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Relationship of sociology with Anthropology Similarities between sociology and Anthropology

• What is sociology?
• What is Anthropology?
• The term anthropology is derived from two Greek word “Anthropus”
and “Logos” which means man and study respectively.
• It is the science of biological and socio-cultural development of
mankind.
• It studies biological and socio- cultural features of man.
• The subject- matter of anthropology is the whole evolution from the
first invention of man to modern civilization, culture etc.
• Both are science and based on experiment and facts.
• Both have common subject- matter such as origin and development
of organization ,institution culture, norms and values of society etc.
• Both used some common methods such as observation, case study
etc. to find out the facts .
• Both exchange help with each other to study and understand man
and his socio-cultural development.
• Both sciences studies human behaviour in group and social
surroundings .

Relationship of sociology with political

Difference between sociology and Anthropology.
Sociology
• Social relationship is the core
subject-matter of sociology
• It studies modern complex society.
• It used social survey ,interview
,questionnaire method.
• It focus on group behavior.
• It has narrow scope
• It is young science.
• Mainly concentrates on social
interaction.
Anthropology
• Biological and socio-cultural
development is the subject -matter of
anthropology
• Simple and primitive society
• Laboratory, ethnographic and
participant observation method.
• Individual as well as group behavior.
• Wider scope
• Old
• Mainly concentrates on culture
science.
• Political science is the science of state and government.
• It deals with political behaviour , political activities and political
process of human society.
• It studies social groups organized under the sovereignty of the state.
• It is the study of forms and nature government, rules and regulation ,
political parties and their activities.
• It focus what the state has been, what the state is and what the state
should be.

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Similarities between sociology and political Difference between sociology and political
science. science
• Sociology and political science no doubt are intimately interrelated social science.
• The subject-matter like revolution, war, mass movement, voting , leadership , sociology Political science
constitution etc. are common to both science. • Sociology is the science of • Political science is the science of
• Being a science of society, sociology also study political activities as a part of society by society. state and government.
taking help from political science. In return sociology provide socially significant • It studies organized / • It studies politically organized
background to political science. unorganized group group.
• They borrow many ideas and concept from one another to find out the facts. • It is general • It is special
• The rules regulations have great impact upon society which are based on customs , • It studies man as a social animal. • It studies man as a ruler and
tradition and experiences and they are the subject-matter of sociology. being ruled.
• It is young social science
• Catlin said that they are two faces of the same figure.
• It is older than sociology.
• Both used interview, questionnaire, observation method for investigation.

Application sociology in addressing contemporary ,

social issues in Nepal. Definition of Applied sociology
• What is applied sociology? • Some philosopher said that applying theoretical knowledge and
• There are mainly two parts of sociology. methods to social affairs for the betterment of human society is
• A. Theoretical sociology.
• B Practical sociology
applied sociology.
• Practical sociology itself is applied sociology • Some sociologist defines that the use of theoretical principles and
• Applied sociology is a branch of sociology which is concerned with getting of information methods for the desirable transformation of human society is applied
upon social problems and finding the methods for their solution. sociology.
• It is the practical use of sociological principles and insights to the analysis and
understanding of a social situation. • In real speaking, applied sociology is a branch of sociology which
• It refers to the application of sociological knowledge in addressing different social issues concentrates to the study on how to settle social issues for the
and finding the methods for their solution . betterment of society . It is related with the moral achievement of
• The scope of applied sociology is to deal different social issues and recommended its human society.
solution.
• Social reconstruction is the main function of applied sociology.

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• It refers to the application of theoretical knowledge and methods in

addressing different social and technical issues. Role of sociology in addressing social issues.
• It can be used in planning, policy making to our daily life.
• It is being realized that sociological knowledge can apply to identify • Sociology is the science of society so it can play important role in addressing various
social issues.
newly emerge social and technical issues and finding out their • It helps to identify various issues by scientific research and provides appropriate solution
solution for the betterment of human society. for them.
• Some contemporary social issues in Nepal are;
• Poverty
• Unemployment
• Corruption
• Crime.
• Drug addiction.
• Discrimination and inequality
• Human trafficking.
• Child labour.
• Violence against women.
• Conflict etc.

Use of sociological knowledge in social issues.

• Sociological knowledge can be used;
- to identify different issues by scientific research. • To collect factual information.
-to make policy and plans and its proper implementation for the improvement of society
• To correct popular nonsense
-to increased public awareness and the level of consciousness about various issues.
-to increased psychological unity. • To identify social and technical issues
-to promotes the development programs and its evaluation . • To increase access in technology.
-to bring plans into success.
-to maintain transparency in development work.
• To evaluate the program and its benefits.
-to built equitable society by reconstruction. • To provide suggestion to the legislative body to form new law which
-to increased the power of social actions can address social and technical issues.
-to promote national goal. • To provide appropriate solution for various problems
-to the enhancement of productivity
-to educate people about law, code of conduct of society. • To make sociological prediction on social happening.
-to develop international relationship.

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Why sociological knowledge is beneficial for
the students of engineering?
• Sociology is the science of society and It helps to understand socio-economic
technological development of a country which is needed for the students of civil
engineering.
• A civil engineer is a development worker, policy maker, planner, researcher etc. He/she
built different types of infrastructure . Sociology helps to construct infrastructure by
providing the knowledge of social diversity.
• It helps to solve different social problems such as crime and its forms and impact upon
society by providing the knowledge of social system .And an engineer can develop
controlling mechanism.
• It helps to develop skill, self- confidence and strong will power by scientific study of
society.
• It helps to face various challenges in our personal and professional life by providing the
knowledge of different society.
• It helps to change our behavior and tell us how to became what we want to be?
• It helps to provide the knowledge of indigenous technology
• It helps to solve organizational problem.
Chapter-2
Language of sociology
Society and culture
• The term society is derived from the Latin word ‘societus’ which means
companionship or friendship/associate.
• In simple language, society means a group of people who share a common
culture, lived in a definite geographical area . In sociology society means
not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of social relationship
that exist between the individuals of group.
• It is a system of interaction which connect the individual together as a
group.
• It is the total social heritage of sentiment, ideas, institution, beliefs etc.
• It is a complex pattern of norms of social interaction and interrelationship
by which the members of society maintain themselves.
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• It helps to know the needs, traditions, population composition etc of society and they
can play important role in the application of new technology which is essential for
engineer.
• It helps to understand national income and an engineer can increase it by the invention
and use of new technology.
• In the context of Nepal, it helps to understand social diversity which is needed for the
implementation of community based project.
• It helps to maintained transparency in development activities by providing the
knowledge of law, legal system of a country which is essential for engineer.
• It provides some knowledge about national and international community, resources and
its management which is needed for development and development is the goal of
engineering . It helps to collect technical data and provide some suggestion for the
development of modern machine.
• It helps to promote national unity by minimizing social conflict, different types of unrest
which is needed for national progress and it is related with engineering.
• It teach to honest life and provide knowledge about history, events and happenings of
society which is useful for civil engineer.
• A civil engineer in not only a constructer of infrastructure but also the reconstructer of
society so sociological knowledge is essential for him/her.
• It helps to understand national resources and an engineer can plan it perfectly for the
development of nation.
Definition of society
• MacIver defines that society is the web of social relationship.
• According to Giddings “society is the union itself ,the organization , the
sum of formal relationship in which associating individuals are bound
together.”
• Lapier said that the term society refers not to group of people but to the
complex pattern of norms of interaction that arise among and between
individuals.
• G.D.H. Cole , “ society is the complex of organized associations and
institutions within the community”.
• Talcott Parsons writes, “society may be defined as the total of action in
terms of man-end relationship, intrinsic or symbolic.”
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Characteristics of society. Types of society

• Society consists of people. • Tribal/ hunting-gathering society.
• It depends on likeness and difference too. • Agricultural society
• It is dynamic and abstract concept. • Industrial society
• Mutual interaction and mutual awareness . • Technological society.
• It implies interdependence.
• It is a process.
• It has its own culture and way of life.
• Cooperation and division of labour etc.

Main bases of society Importance of society

• Usages • It provides comfort, protection, opportunities etc for human beings.
• Social structure • It contributes to the development of personality.
• Social control • It helps to control human behaviour.
• Authority etc. • It is needed for living, working, enjoying .
• It provides rights and duties for individuals
• It helps to create common patterns of social relationship
• It is essential condition for human life to arise and continue.
• Life is impossible without society.

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What is culture ? Definition of culture

• The term culture is derived from German word Kulture which means way
of life and mental out look of the people. Some scholar believed that
culture is derived from Latin word culture which means refinement.
• In simple language culture means feast, festivals, dress religion, tradition ,
customs etc. but in sociology culture is the creation of human being.
• It includes all walks of life, modes of behaviour, our moral and manners,
philosophy and technological, political, economic , religious and any other
types of activities which is acquired by man as a member of society.
• It consists we do , we think and we have as a member of society.
• It refers to the shared knowledge, beliefs, values and rules about behaviour
and all the recognized material object.
• It is all the achievement of group life. i.e. material and non-material
achievement.
• E.B. Tylor defines that culture is that complex whole which include
knowledge, beliefs, art, moral, law , customs and any other
capabilities and habits which is acquired by man as a member of
society.
• Lundberg defines that culture refers to the social mechanism of
behaviour and to the physical and symbolic products of these
behaviour.
• M.J. Herskovits defines that culture is the man made part of
environment.
• C.C. North defines that culture consists in the instruments constituted
by man to assist him in satisfying his wants.

• In conclusion we can say that,

Characteristics of culture
-Culture is the life style of people.
-It is all that which in non-biological and socially learned and • It is learned behaviour.
transmitted.
-It is the consequences of human efforts which can transform from • It is transformative .
one generation to another.
• It is social/ man made.
-It is a pattern of learned and shared behaviour and beliefs of a
particular social group. • It is symbolic .
- It is the way of life of people which is shared by the members of • It is dynamic,
society.
-It is the expression of human nature in our ways of living and thinking • It is different from one group to another.
in behaving and acting as members of society. • It is shared and adaptive.
• It is idealistic,
• It is an integrated system.

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Types of culture Elements of culture

• Material culture :- It consist of man made object such as tools, • Norms and values.
automobiles, buildings , roads , bridges , and in facts the physical
substance which has been changed and used by man • Beliefs.
• Non-material culture:- The invisible things which direct and • Technology.
determine the social behaviour of people . It includes ideology , • Symbols.
beliefs, morals, customs, religion values etc.
• We can divided culture into,
• Ideological aspects:-philosophical aspects such as beliefs, moral etc.
• Sociological aspects:- Marriage, family etc.
• Technological aspects:- Invention and implementation of tools.
• Sentimental aspects:- Totem, taboos etc.

Importance of culture Community and institutions

• It helps to fulfill human needs, • What is community?
• It helps to develop our personality. • The term community is derived from Latin word “com” which means
• It provides knowledge. paying service and “munis” which means together. It means to serve
together .
• It separate human from other animal.
• Generally it is used to mean a professional, religious, linguistic group
• It helps to understand particular tradition and development of of people.
society.
• In sociology community means a group of people whose member
• It provides identity share a sense of identity, specific interest , norms and values and
• It provides an opportunity to develop new technology, ideas etc. living in a common geographical area.

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• Community is an inclusive system which includes social groups,
sentiments and location.
• It is a circle where common life is living.
• Social living and common specific area give birth to community.
• If people share the basic condition of common life in a definite
geographical area, we may call it community.
• We understand community as a social unit of any size that shapes
common values.
Definition of community
• Bogardus said that community is a social group with some degree of
‘we feeling’ and living in a common area.
• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff “ A community is a group or
collection of groups that inhabits a locality.”
• R. M. MacIver defines that community is an area of social living
marked by some degree of social coherence.
• In the word of Lundberg, “ community is a human population living
within a limited geographical area and carrying on common inter-
dependent life.”
• In conclusion, community is a group of people that inhabits locality
with sentiments.

Major bases of community Characteristics of community

• Group of people. • Stability
• Common locality. • Compulsory membership.
• Community sentiment. • Specific name.
• Common life.
• Naturalness .
• Likeness.
• Concreteness .
• Common interest etc.

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Types of community Difference between society and community

• Rural community.
society
• Urban community. • It is the web of social relationship.
• It is an abstract concept.
• We feeling is not essential.
• Geographical area is not basic condition of
society.
• Likeness and difference both are the
characteristics of society.
• The membership of society is optional
• It is easily changeable.
• No specific name.
• It is not related with identity.
community
• It is a group of people living in a definite
geographical area.
• It is concrete concept.
• We feeling is essential element of community.
• Locality is basic criteria of community.
• Only likeness can form community.
• The membership of community is compulsory
.
• It is relatively stable.
• Each and every community has specific
name.
• It is related with identity on the basis of
geographical area..

What is institution? Definition of institution

• Generally institution means an organization which is established to
fulfill human needs such as college, business organization, religious
organization, government and non-government organization etc.
• In sociology institution refers to a set of norms and working
procedures established to fulfill certain objective.
• It is a kind of rules, regulation, system or working mechanism by
which an association and organization can function. For e.g.
education, constitution, religion , kinship ,folkways, bureaucracy etc.
• It refers to the organized way of doing thing and common procedure.
• It is a set of norms which includes set of norms , behaviour , ideas etc.
• MacIver and Page :- Institution may be defined as the established forms or
conditions of procedure characteristics of group activities.
• According to Bogardus “ A social institution is a structure of society that is
organized to meet the needs of people chiefly through well established
procedure.”
• Ginsberg defines that the recognized and established usages governing the
relation between individual and group.
• Kingsley Davis, “ institution is a set of interwoven folkways, mores , and laws built
around one of more function.”
• In conclusion, social institution is the set of norms and working procedure
established to fulfill certain objectives.
• It is that part of society which maintain social order and satisfy the needs of
people through well established set of norms and working procedures.

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Characteristics of institution Types of institution

• Definite objective 1. Primary social institutions :- Kinship, religion, family, Marriage etc.
• Abstract in nature. 2. Secondary social institutions :- Judiciary ,law, educationetc.
• Relatively permanent .
Function/importance/role of institutions
• Symbolic • To fulfill the needs of people.
• Universality. • To develop social unity.
• Social in nature. • To maintain social order.
• To control human behaviour.
• Interrelated.
• To provides working environment.
• Every institution has some rules. • Socialization etc.

Association Definition of association

• Define association. What do you mean by association?
• Association is an organization which is deliberately created by some
individual to achieve some definite objective.
• It is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or limited
number of purposes.
• It is transitory group of people who unite together to pursue a
common purpose.
• It is formed for the achievement of some specific purpose which does
not include the whole purpose of life . For e.g. teacher association,
engineers association, sports association, trade union etc.
• Bogardus:- Association is usually a working together of people to achieve
some purpose.
• Morris Ginsberg, “ An association is a group of social beings related to one
another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an
organization with a view to securing a specific end of specific ends.”
• Dictionary of Anthropology :- Association is a group of persons who join
together or are joined together for a particular activities, interest and
purpose.
• In conclusion, It is a formal group organized for the achievement of
particular interest . It has its own rule and regulation to regulate the
relations of its member.

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Difference between institution and

Characteristics of Association
association
• Group of people.
Institution
• Common interest • It is working procedure
• Certain rules and regulation. • It is evolutionary in nature.
• Voluntary membership. • Its membership is compulsory
• Social in nature. membership
• It is relatively permanent.
• Definite objective.
• It is abstract in nature.
Types of Association • Have not any definite location
1. Permanent association • Difficult to violate its rule.
2. Temporary association • It is symbolic
Association
• It is an organized group of people.
• Can create easily at any day and
night.
• Its membership is voluntary
• It may be temporary or permanent.
• It is concrete in nature.
• It has its own fixed location
• Easy to dissolve .
• Own name .

Social group Definition of social group

• What is social group?
• When two or more than two individual comes tighter and influence one
another, they may be called social group.
• It is a meaningful gathering of individuals who have direct or indirect
interaction with common goal for certain time.
• Any number of people who share common goal with interaction is social
group
• Social group means a unit of two or more individuals meeting in the point
of achieving common goal.
• A social group exist when two or more people are in direct or indirect
contact and communication for common goal. For e.g. family, business
group, professional group etc.
• H . M. Johnson, “ A social group is a system of social interaction.”
• MacIver and Page defines that social group is any collection of human
beings who are brought into social relationship with one another.
• Ginsberg, “ A social group is collection of individual interacting on each-
other under a recognizable structure.”
• Turner and killian, “ A group always consists of people who are in
interaction and whose interaction is affected by the sense that they
constitute a unit.”
• In conclusion social group is an organized group of people to achieve
common objective.

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Characteristics of social group Types of social group

• W. G. Sumner
• Collection of individuals A. In group
B. Out group
• Reciprocal relationship
2. C.A. Ellwood
• Mutual awareness. A. Involuntary group
• Common goal B. Voluntary group.
• Sense of unity. 3. Park and Burgess.
• Variation in structure. A. Territorial group ( community)
B. Non-territorial group( class)
• Voluntary and compulsory membership.
According to C.H. Cooley there are TWO main group in human society.
• Permanent and temporary in nature. Etc. A. Primary social group
B. Secondary social group.

• Primary social group :- Primary groups means a social group Difference between primary and secondary
characterized by face to face interaction , small in size , common group
interest, universality, permanent , nearness, similarity in background
Primary secondary
etc.
• Nature of relationship:-Face to • Indirect, formal, impersonal .
• Secondary group:- A secondary group is one which is large in size , face , personal , informal, direct,
impersonal relationship , specific interest, voluntary membership etc. physical proximity . • Voluntary.
• Membership:- Compulsory • Specific interest.
• Group interest:-General • Indirect.
• Nature of cooperation: - • Large.
spontaneous • Temporary.
• Size:- small
• Created.
• Durability :- Permanent
• Formal rules
• Nature :- Evolutionary.
• Mechanism :- informal rules

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Homogenous and Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

• Homogenous means same kind of nature.
• Similarity in culture , religion , race, language, ideology , ethnicity etc.
• Unified characteristics of human society and culture. For e.g. village.
• Oxford Dictionary: - Homogenous means consisting of parts of
number that are all the same.
• Unity in different extension of life.
• Diversity or varied in composition.
• Diversity of language, religion , profession , age, sex etc.
• Oxford dictionary :- consisting of parts or things of different types.
• The different identity of any particular society is heterogeneity.
• City.

Homogenous and heterogeneous

Tribe, Caste and ethnicity
characteristics of Nepalese society.
• Linguistic • What is tribe?
• Cultural. • Tribe is a small social group usually living in a common territory , speak
common language, practice common culture and united by the ties of
• Caste and ethnic. blood relationship.
• Geographical. • A distinct people who are not integrated in to modern society.
• Tribe is characterized by cultural homogeneity and a unifying social
organization.
• Tribe is extended forms of clan and they have own political organization .
• They likes to spent nomadic life. For e.g. Raute of Nepal, Bushman of
Africa, Eskimos of Central America, Hydo of Philippine , Arunta of Australia
etc.

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Definition of tribe Characteristics of tribe

• According to Mitchell , “ The tribe is socially cohesive unit, associated with • Common language….
a territory, the member of which regards them a politically autonomous .” • Group unity.
• Hennery Mine defines that tribes are the pre-civilized stages of human • Endogamy.
group. They are the small scale of social group that shows cultural unity. • Peculiar political organization.
• Gillen and Gillen said that a tribe is a group of local communities which • Small in size.
lives in a common area, speak common dialect and follow a common • Nomadic way of life.
culture. • Limited division of labour.
• In conclusion tribe is a collection of families of group of families bearing a • Common ancestor .
common name and occupy a common territory, speak same language and • Genetic and cultural homogeneity.
observed certain taboos regarding marriage and occupation. • Follow customary law.

What is caste ? Define caste. Definition of caste

• The term caste is derived from Latin word “ casta” which means
breed, race or complex of hereditary qualities .
• It is closed and hierarchical system of Hindu society which is based
on birth and some times marriage.
• It is the main bases of inequality because it divided society in to
various social group in a hierarchical order on the basis of purity and
pollution.
• It divided society in to FOUR varna and Thirty- six caste such as
Brahmin, Chhetrya , Vaishaya and Sudra.
• In this system, the occupation, social relationship, food habits etc. are
determine by birth.
• It ignored individual’s ability, tallency, interest etc.…..
• According to C.H.Cooley “ When a class is somewhat strictly
hereditary , we may call it caste.
• Macvmillion defines that caste is corporate social unit which are
ranked and generally defined by descent, marriage and occupation.
• Madan and Majumdar, “ A caste is closed class.”
• A.W. Green , “ Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up
and down in the status ladder, at least ideally may not occur .”
• In conclusion, caste is a social structure in which status are determine
by birth . It is very rigid and closed social system .

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Characteristics of caste system Merits of caste

• Closed system • Spirit of cooperation.
• Vertical hierarchical division of society. • Cultural transmission.
• Restriction • Racial purity
• Concept of untouchability. • Maintain traditional social system
• Segmental division of society.
• Based on Hindu philosophy
• Endogamy etc.

Demerits of caste system What is Ethnicity

• Caste is a social problem in present day Nepal because.
-It creates inequality among the member of society.
-Create obstacle in social progress and national unity.
- It denies change in profession.
-Lack of humanity.
-Promote inborn discrimination.
-Low social position of lower caste
- promote violence .
-Ignored ability, interest of individual.
-Retarded social solidarity etc.
• The term ethnicity is derive from Greek word “Ethnos” which means
people or nation.
• Simply, ethnicity means the members of certain cultural group like a
member of any other organization. It refers to the sentimental attachment
or commitment towards their own cultural heritage, ethnic pride, national
origin etc.
• Ethnicity means those group of people’s feeling who wants to identify
themselves in the cultural ground by language, folk practices, religion ,
dress, history of ancestor etc. For e.g. Nepali, Indian, Himali , maithali etc.
• It is psychological as well as political consciousness of a certain group or
area.
• It is related with nationality, autonomy and sovereignty of people.

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Definition of ethnicity Characteristics of ethnicity

• Foster defines that ethnicity is the forms of collective identity formation
process.
• Oxford Dictionary defines that ethnicity means a condition of
belongingness to a particular ethnic group and ethnic pride.
• Collins English dictionary defines that ethnicity is the state or fact of
belonging to a particular ethnic group.
• Cambridge dictionary :- A large group of people who have the same
national, racial or cultural origins, or the state of belonging to such group.
• In conclusion, the group of people who have cultural awareness and
consider superior than other because of their separate existence and
identity is ethnicity.
• Psychological and political awareness .
• Generally it is based on religion, race, geographical area.
• It involves emotion.
• It is cultural concept.
• It can be express in terms of multi-culturalism.
• In practice, it is most associated with minority group within a
population.
• Sometimes it can be express in violence forms.

Role of ethnicity Status and Role

• It is nation building process because,
• It helps to forms national identity.
• It helps to develop specific national mentality.
• It helps to strengthen democracy by political awareness .
• It helps to develop sentimental unity.
• It helps to promote social justice.
• It helps to protect national interest and geographical boundaries.
• It helps to protect national values and culture etc.
• What is social status?
• Social status is a position, respect, identity, rank of a person in a given
group or society.
• It is a position that occupies a person in the group on the basis of sex,
age, profession, education, marriage etc. for e.g. male, teacher,
daughter etc.
• It is “total social standing” of a person in a society.
• It provides certain rights, duties, privileges , responsibilities to
individuals and group.
• It is a kind of social identity of a person in the group.
• It can be acquired by birth and efforts.

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Definition of social status Characteristics of social status

• According to Ralph Linton “ status is the place in particular system, • Universality.
which a certain individual occupies at a particular time.” • Govern by norms.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff defines that status represent the position of the • Multiple forms.
individuals in the group.
• Related with socio-economic system.
• Horton and Hunt :-status usually defined as the rank or position of an
individual in a group or a group in relation to other group or • Express as a symbol.
community. • Own rights, duties and obligation.
• In conclusion , social status is an identity of a person or group of • Dynamic.
persons in social system.

Types of social status What is Role?

• Ascribed status:- Ascribed status is a social position that is received at
birth or involuntary assumed at a later point in the life time. Virtually
these statuses are ascribed to the individual before knowing his/her
potentiality such as male, female, Brahmin, Aryan, son, daughter etc.
• Achieved status:- It refers to the social position that is assumed
voluntary and that reflects a significant measure of personal ability
and efforts . The statuses about which the person has some choice ,
are achieved status such as engineer, doctor, lawyer , professor,
students husband-wife etc.
• Society give different status for individuals and expected to fulfill
appropriate behaviour from them . These set of expected behaviour is
role.
• It is the dynamic expression of status.
• It is set of socially expected and approved behaviour consisting of both
duties and privilege associated with particular position in a group.
• It is a pattern of behaviour corresponding to a particular status.
• Role is played by individual and it is needed to maintain social order in
society.
• It refers to manner in which a person actually carries out the requirement
of his position.

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Definition of Role
• Young and Mack write, “ A role is the function of status.”
• According to Ginsberg , “ A role is the manner in which that position
is supposed to be filled.”
• Elliot and Merrill said that a role is the part he plays as a result of
each status.
• Lundberg defines that social role is a pattern of behaviour expected
of an individual in a certain group or situation.
• In conclusion, role is a behavioural aspects of status.
Interrelationship between status and role
• Without status role can not be played and without appropriate role
status are meaningless
• Both are dynamic.
• Both are the part of social structure.
• Status and role are govern by definite norms and values.
• Status and roles are determine by socio-economic and political
system
• Both are social phenomena.
• Both are universal but different from one society to another.
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Characteristics of role
• Roles are based on status.
• Roles are both obligatory and optional.
• Different people perform same role differently.
• Roles are associated with norms and values.
• Some roles are shared by mass of the people e.g. students, audience etc.
• Roles are dynamic /changeable .
• Roles are both ascribed and achieve.
Types of Role
1. Formal role
2. Informal role
3. Taking role
Norms and Values
• What do you mean by social Norms and values?
• The term norms is derived from Latin word “Norma” which means
rule, law or standard. It means norms are the standard of group
behaviour
• Every society is guided by some specific rule in maintaining social
order which are supposed to be followed by all the members of the
society. Such set of rules, tradition, belief, custom, law are called
social norms.
• Norms are the rules of behaviour in a society which is culturally
desirable and approved.
• It is related with ethical aspects of social life.
• It gives direction to act and interact with each- other.
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• Define social value.

Definition of social Norms
• According to Young and Mack “ Norms refers to the group shared
expectations .”
• G.R. Leslie said that social norms are the rules developed by a group
of people that specify how people must, should, may, should not and
must not behave in various institutions.
• H.M. Johnson:- “A norms is an abstract pattern held in the mind, that
sets certain limits for behaviour.
• Robert Bierstedt writes “ A norm is rule or standard that governs our
conduct in social situation in which we participant”
• In conclusion, Social law to do something is social norms.
• In sociology , social values refers to the cultural standard which
regulate and determine individual as well as group behaviour.
• Value refers constitute part of social structure.
• Social values are based on experiences and define what is
desirable and morally correct .
• Social values are standards , goal and ideal of society on which
basis social situations are evaluated .
• Value refers to the social end or goal which is considered desirable
of achievements .
• Values are group conceptions of the relative desirability of things .

Definition of social values. Types of values

• According to H. M. Johnson , “Values are general standard and may
be higher order of norms.” • Pragmatic Values
• According to Kimball Young, “ social values are assumptions of what • Ideal values
is right and important.”
• H. Bonner defines that values are product of the interest and
Types of social Norms
activities of man in groups . When a natural object acquires a • Folkways
meaning it becomes a value. An object without meaning, in other • Mores
word has no value.
• Elliot and Merrill:- “ social values are objects which have a meaning • Taboos
for us and which we consider important in our life scheme.” • Law
• In fact, social values are the measure of goodness of desirability
which provides general guideline for conduct.

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Characteristics of social norms and values.
• Both are universal and collective.
• Different from society to society,
• Both are dynamic.
• Based on social experiences and culture.
• They are internalized through socialization.
• They are compulsory but not equal for all.
• They are learnt.
• Social values are social standard.
• Value may conflict one another.
• Norms incorporate value judgement.
• Norms are not always following by all.
Cooperation and conflict
• What is cooperation?
• The term cooperation is derived from Latin word “co” and “operari ”
which means joint work for common goal. It means working together
for a common purpose
• It is goal oriented and conscious forms of social interaction which
arise when two or more than two person see or released that we
have common goal and we can achieve it by our common efforts.
• It is mutual working together for the attainment of a common goal.
• The basic elements of cooperation are joint effort and common goal.
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Function/ importance of Norms and values
• Norms and values are the software parts of society because,
• They helps to maintain social order and guide and control individual
behaviour.
• They helps to forms national culture and produce good citizen.
• They govern human’s social life.
• They helps to develop human personality.
• They bring social unity and stability.
• They bring legitimacy to the rules that regulate specific activities.
• They provide social welfare and satisfy human needs.
• They helps to develop ethical standards of behaviour.
Definition of cooperation.
• Merrill and Eldredge defines that cooperation is a forms of social
interaction where in two or more persons work together to gain a
common end.
• According to Fairchild ,” Cooperation is the process by which the
individual of group combine their effort, in a more or less organized
way for the attainment of common objective.”
• C.N. Shankar Rao defines that cooperation is joint activity in pursue
of common goals or shared rewards.
• In conclusion, cooperation is mutual working together for common
end.
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Types of cooperation. Characteristics of cooperation

• Primary. • Continuous .
• Secondary. • Universal
• Direct • Easily accessible.
• Indirect • Conscious process
• Tertiary. • Common objective
• Common effort
• Fundamental

Role of cooperation. Conflict

• It is the process of survival.
• Provide solution for different problems.
• Fulfill psychological and biological needs.
• Provide opportunity
• Provide social security.
• Bring progress.
• What is conflict?
• In simple language conflict means fight, war and embargo and so on.
• In sociology conflict is a kind of social process by which the members of society
try to secure their goal, reward by the use of violence or threat of valance.
• It is a kind of struggle between two opposing forces, battle, group, ideas etc.
• It is deliberately created social process and individual or group secure their goal
by defeating or destroying the opponent.
• It is a kind od disagreement , straggle or clash between people with opposing
ideas, belief goal etc.
• It is a process that bind people together in interaction and encourage people of
similar interest to unite together to achieve their objective.

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Definition of conflict Types of conflict

• Horton and Hunt:- “ Conflict is a process of seeking to monopolized • Personal
rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitor .” • Ideological
• A.W. Green , “conflict is deliberate attempt to oppose, resist ,or • Social
coerce the will of another or other.”
• International
• Young and Mack defines that conflict takes the form of emotionalized
and violent opposition, in which the major concern is to overcome • Corporate.
the opponent as means of securing a given goal of reward. • Simmel:- war, Feud, Litigation etc.
• It is overt struggle between two persons, group or between the
individual.

Characteristics of conflict Causes of conflict

• It is universal social process. • Social structure.
• It may be Personal or impersonal. • Social problem.
• It is conscious action • Ideological difference.
• It is intermittent or not continuous process • Political anarchism.
• Basically violence in nature • Cultural difference.
• It has positive as well as negative result. • Socio-cultural change.
• It is ever present phenomena.

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Importance of conflict Difference between cooperation and conflict.

• It helps to redefine social norms and values and bring socio-political and economic change.
Cooperation Conflict
• It can play important role to bring social justice.
• It enhances cooperation in similar group. • It is joint effort for common goal. • It is a process of straggle.
• It helps to make society progressive and dynamic. • It is continuous social process. • It is intermittent process of interaction.
• External conflict bring internal unity. • It mostly bring positive result in human • It brings positive as well as negative result.
• It encourages people to achieve their goal. society
• Strong sentiment, deepest interest, emotion
• It is the driving force of social change. • Sympathy, Kindness etc. are basic elements. etc. are basic elements.
• It helps to change cultural symbols, rules of behaviour , social organization, social structure etc. • Basically nonviolence form of social • It is violence form of interaction.
• It encourages people to develop new tools and technology. interaction.
• It may create disorder, fear, anxieties and may
• It gives platform for organization. • It helps to bring satisfaction, unity among the damage the fabrics of society.
• It helps to minimized inequality, discrimination, exploitation etc. members of society.

Unit -3 • Social system is constitute by the actions of individuals, authority,

distribution of power, socialization process for new generation.
Fundamental concept in sociology • Like a human body society also has some organs or parts.
Social System • Social system is an arrangement of social interactions based on
• What is social system? shared norms and values.
• Social system means orderly arrangement of parts of society which • To established functional relationship between units of society,
function together to run society. people create a definite pattern which is known as social system.
• social system is an orderly and systematic arrangement of components of • The essential elements of social system are beliefs and knowledge,
society namely social interaction. sentiments , social norms and role, sanction, power etc.
• When a number of individual involve in interaction, they produce a definite
pattern of behaviour which is called social system.
• Social system is composed of the patterned interaction of member and it is
based on meaningful interaction of plurality of individual.

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Definition of social system
• M.E. Jones:- “ social system is the condition in which different active
units of society interact upon each- other, the interaction should be
meaningful and related with cultural system.”
• A. f. Ogburn defines that social system is a plurality of individuals
interaction with each-other according to shared cultural norms and
meaning.
• Talcott Parsons said that social system is composed of the patterned
interactions of members.
• In conclusion, social system is a meaningful interaction between
different active units of society.
Social structure.
• The original meaning of structure refers to the building construction or
arrangements of parts.
• Social structure is the basic concept of sociology because sociology is the
study of structure and function of society.
• Herbert Spencer introduced the term structure in sociology.
• In sociology social structure refers to the network of social relationship,
which is created among the human beings when they interact with each-
other according to there status in accordance with the pattern of society.
• It always focus how the component parts of system “work” in relation to
each- other and to the whole.
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Characteristic of social system.
• Social system is based on social interaction.
• Every parts of social system are related on the basis of functional
relationship.
• It is dynamic.
• It constitute different parts of society.
• It has quality of self adaptation.
• It is related with cultural system
• Social structure is the particular arrangement of interrelated
interactions, agencies and social patterns .
• Social structure is the aggregate of different smaller and bigger units
of society.
• Like a building society also formed by the systematic arrangements of
different parts , such as family, ethnic group , different organizations
etc.
• So social structure means principle forms of group, organization
which constitute society.
• Social structure deals with the elements of society and their
interdependency . So it is the external and functional aspects of
society.
• Social structure means systematic arrangements of different social
units which helps to develop definite framework.
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Definition of social structure. Characteristics of social structure.

• Radcliff Brown :- “ social structure is an arrangement of person in • Universality.
relationship intuitionally defined, controlled or regulated.” • It is relatively permanent.
• Karl Mannheim said that social structure is the web of interacting • It has different sub-structure.
social forces from which have arisen the various modes of observing
and thinking. • Basically related with external pattern of society.
• M. Shepherd writes, “ social structure refers to the patterned social • It is influence by local feature.
relationship among individual and group.” • Basically related with the continuity of society .
• In conclusion, social structure is systematic arrangement of the • It is not complete system.
elements of society.

Interrelationship between social system and Difference between social system and social
social structure. structure.
• Social system is functional aspects of social structure
Social system Social structure
• Both are based on human’s interaction and interrelation.
• It is Internal parts of society. • External
• Social structure is the means by which social system can function.
• Different from society to society. • Basic elements of system are • Social organization , association
beliefs, knowledge, norms etc. etc.
• Without structure system can not function and without system
structure would be meaningless. • Abstract. • Relatively concrete.
• Both are universal • Dynamic • Relatively stable
• Both are social in nature. • It is the ends of society • It is means to reach the ends.
• Both are determine by social norms and values • The main parts is individual. • Groups and organization

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• Family is a socially recognized group of people united by the

What is family?
• Family is one of the most important social institution in human society.
• It is the basic unit of social structure and the first institution through
which people learn social behavior, exception and rules.
• It is one of the strongest unit of society where our life begins .
• The term Family is derived from Latin word “Famulus” which means
servant .
• It means the group of people who serve each-other.
ties of blood relationship, marriage and adaptation.
• It is a group of people related either by consanguinity or
affinity.
• In sociology family is an intimate group of people related to one
another by bonds of blood, marriage or legal ties.
• It is a social group characterized by common residence,
economic cooperation and reproduction.
• It is socially recognized group that forms an emotional
connection and serves as an economic unit of society.
• It is a key social institution in all societies.

Definition of family Characteristic of family

• According to Elliot and Merrill “ family is basic social unit composed of
husband, wife and children.”
• It is universal social institution.
• Clare defines that family is a system of relationship existing between
parents and children. • Central or nuclear position in social structure.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff defines that family is more or less durable • Limited size.
association of husband and wife with or without children or a man or
woman along with children. • Emotional attachment.
• In conclusion , family is an institution where husband, wife and their • Clear responsibility of the members.
children established mutual relationship for biological and • Common residence.
psychological comfort. It is the basic unit of society traditionally
consisting of two parents and their children. • May be temporary or permanent.
• Social regulations.
• It is formed on the basis of marriage, blood or adaptation.

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Types of family
1. On the basis of marriage
a. Monogamous family.
b. Polygamous family. 4. On the basis of residence
c. polyandrous family. a . Patrilocal family
2. On the basis of authority b . Matrilocal family.
a. Patriarchal family. c . Neo-local family.
b. matriarchal family.
5. On the basis of decent.
3. On the basis of structure
a. Nuclear family. a. Patri - lineage family
b. Joint family. b. Matrilineage family

• It provides identity.
Importance/ function of family.
• It provides home.
• Family regulates sexual life. • It maintains division of labour and teaches all the basic rules,
• It maintains reproduction and caring of child. norms and values.
• It helps to transforms culture. • It helps to control individual behavior and make our
• It performed birth to death rituals. character.
• It protect wealth and determine successor of property. • It helps to built our perception , judgement.
• It provides love, sympathy and security for its member.
• It helps to fulfill different needs of its member .

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Caste and ethnic group What is ethnic group?

• Caste and ethnic group are another component part of social structure
because.
• Caste is a unit of society.
• It helps to maintain continuity .
• It helps to determine the status of individual and group.
• It is relatively permanent sub-structure of society.
• The whole function of society has been operated on the basis of caste .
• Caste is a forms of social stratification which helps to determine process of
social interaction, occupation etc.
• Occupational mobility is the major basis of social structure which
determine total way of social life.
• The term ethnic group is come from Greek word “Ethnos” which means
people within a nation or nationality.
• Simply ethnic group means a group of people who have their own mother
tongue , traditional homeland, cultural practices, written or oral history ,
sense of group identity etc.
• A group of people who identify themselves on the basis of shared attributes
that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of tradition,
culture, geographical area, race etc.
• In the context of Nepal those group of people who are not divided in caste
system, do not wear “Janai”, used liquors and have not decisive condition in
state politics and they are known as janajati. For e.g. Newar , Magar, Tharu ,
Sherpa etc.

Definition of ethnic group Characteristics of ethnic group

• They have their own cultural ground.
• W.P.Scott defines that an ethnic group is a group with common cultural tradition
and a sense of identity. • Own traditional homeland.
• Advance learner dictionary defines that ethnic people is the race or races of • Own social values and norms.
mankind of a particular group • Own politico- economic organization.
• Janajati Utthan Pratisthan karyadal defines that ethnic group are those group of • Own physical and psychological personality.
people who have definite geographical area, own mother tongue, traditional
• They declared themselves as “janajati”
culture and yet do not fall under the conventional four fold varna system, have
own special identity and religion, own written or oral history and have not • They have their own language.
decisive approach in state politics and who have sense of we feeling e.g. Tharu, • Free from orthodox of Hinduism.
Limbu, Gurung.
• They do not ware “janai” and used liquors
• In conclusion, ethnic group means a group of people who have their common
cultural bond, identity, dress, tradition etc.

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Difference between caste and ethnic group
• Caste
• It is a social system
• It is based on Hinduism.
• untouchability is the main
characteristic.
• It divided society in to 4 varna and 36
caste.
• Used state language.
Difference between ethnic group and
ethnicity
Ethnic group
• Ethnic group is a group of people who have
their own culture, language, traditional
homeland etc.
• Basically based on race and cultural practices.
• Believed on common ancestor.
• It is concrete concept.
• They declared themselves as “JANAJATI”
• They have their own politico-economic and
cultural organization.
• It is sociological concept.
• Own dilatory habits.
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Caste Ethnic group
• Not divided on the basis of • More or less race conscious
race. group
• Ethnic group • Restriction on food habits, • Own dilatory habits
• It is a group of people. dress etc. • Free from orthodox
• It is based on common consciousness. • Based on orthodox of practices of Hinduism.
• Can not find untouchability. Hinduism.
• Not counted in varna system.
• Own mother tongue.
Religion and festivals
• What is religion?
• The term religion is come from the Latin word “Religare” which
Ethnicity means tie in English.
• It is sentimental attachment towards their
identity. • It is a system of beliefs and practices towards supernatural power,
• It can be used in wider context encompassing
with race, religion etc.
places and beings.
• Believed on common identity. • It is a belief in power superior to man.
• It is an abstract concept. • It is socially shared ways of thinking, feeling and acting.
• Consider superior than other due to separate
existence. • It has its own method of worshiping, salvation, processing, beliefs on
• It is collective identity formation process. holy object and ideas.
• It is psychological concept.
• Not always related with food habits and it can
• The foundation of religion is the idea of soul, a spiritual essence that
be develop on different bases such as differ from physical body.
organization, geographical area ,dress etc.
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Definition of religion Characteristics of religion

• E.B.Tylor defines that religion is a beliefs on supernatural beings. • System of beliefs.
• Ogburn :- “it is an attitude towards superhuman power.” • Direction and suggestion for its follower.
• Durkheim said that religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices • Methods of salvation and conciliation.
to sacred things. • Religious Symbol.
• Karl Marx defines that religion is an opium that makes people • Concept of purity.
intoxicated the best way to exploit subordinated by the dominant
lower class. • Spiritual values/ certain taboos.
• Actually, religion is a belief on invisible power and immortality of soul. • Faith on fate etc.

Function/ importance of religion. Religion and festivals.

• Mental peace. • Religion and festivals both are the component part of social structure
because,
• Unity among the same believers .
• The economical, political, technological activities of people are determine
• Control individuals behaviour. by religious belief and festivals.
• To determine role and responsibility. • The process of social interaction is determine by religion and festivals
• Teach to lead simple and honest life. • It is a part of our society .So all the activity including infrastructure are
• To get rid of material tension determine by religious beliefs.
• To tackle the difficulties of life. • It has vital function in maintaining social structure because it helps to
satisfy human’s emotional needs.
• It provides ultimate answer which can not question by those who believe.
• It is the most effective mechanism of continuity.

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• Festivals are a kind of get together which are mostly based on
religious beliefs.
• They determine social interaction , social mobility etc.
• It is an essential elements of social structure because it carry
emotional attachment and fulfill human’s recreational needs.
• It helps to bring emotional integration and social unity.
• It provides excitement and energy to human beings.
• It helps to bring emotional mobility.
Social process.
• Society is the system of social relationship.
• Man create different types of relationship to survive which is the
functional aspects of society.
• Social process is the repetitive forms of social interaction.
• It refers to the modes of interaction which are commonly found in
society.
• The various modes of interaction between individual or groups
including cooperation, conflict, differentiation etc. are social process.
• Those ways in which individual and groups interact and established
social relationship
• Forms of interaction that occurs repeatedly .

Types of social process

Definition of social process 1. Associative social process :- Integrative process i.e. cooperation, accommodation
etc.
• Horton and Hunt:- “ social process refers to the repetitive forms of 2.Disassociative social process :- Process of change through differentiation i.e.
conflict, differentiation etc.
behaviour which are commonly found in social life.”
• Green said that they are merely the characteristics way in which
interaction occur. Kinds of social process.
• Acculturation.
• In conclusion, social process is a process of interaction among the • Assimilation.
members of society. • Accommodation .
• Integration.
• Differentiation.
• Cooperation
• Conflict etc.

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Socialization Definition of socialization.

• In simple language , socialization is the process of learning group
norms, values, habits and ideas through suggestion, imitation,
purposeful training , identification and language.
• In this process the individual learns culturally approved ideas,
attitudes, rights, duties and behaviour etc. from different institution,
associations, organization or social group
• It is life long learning process that enables the learner to perform
social role.
• It is a kind of social training which convert biological being into social
being.
• It is a process through individual or group learns the habit, skills,
beliefs and standard of judgement that are necessary for his effective
participation in society.
• Ogburn :- “ Socialization is the process by which the individuals learn to
conform to the norms of the group.”
• A.W. Green defines that socialization is the process by which the child
acquires a cultural content along with selfhood and personality.
• Peter says, “ socialization as the process of transmission of culture, the
process where by men learn the rules and practices of social group.
• Bogardus defines that socialization is the process of working together, of
developing group responsibility, of being guided by the welfare needs of
others.
• In conclusion, socialization is a process through which individuals shapes
his self–identity and personality in social world.it is a training of an
individual to be a social being.

Characteristics of socialization. Agents of socialization

1. Who have authority over him.
• It is continuous process. - Family and parents, Teacher, government etc.
• It is related to time and places. 2. Who have equal authority to him
- Friends, mass media, Peer group, literature, different
• It is a process of cultural transmission. institution, organization etc.
• It is a process of internalization of norms and values. The main agents of socialization are,
• It is a process of developing self or ego. • The family.
• The playmates or friends.
• The educational institution and teacher.
• Neighborhood .
• Government.
• Different organization, institution, workplace, mass media etc.

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• The family and parents
-first agent , eating, wearing, speaking, social morality etc.
• The playmates and friends
-cooperation, mutual understanding, teamwork discipline , self control,
patient, forgiveness, personality development, leadership skill and
some bad behiviour.
• Educational institution and teacher
-Ideas , attitudes, knowledge ,technology , discipline, law etc.
• Neighbourhood
-behaviour, language, way of life, activities, conflict etc.
• Government
-Rules and regulation, security…….
• Oral stage:- It is the first stage of socialization which begin from birth and
remain up to 18 month. In this stage child learns laugh , some words,
walk, eat etc. he gave some signal for his felt needs.
- Parents, family relatives etc. are the main agents of this stage.
• Anal stage :- This stage remains up to 3-4 years. In this stage a child learns
language , walk, wearing clothes, eating , some aspects of social
relationship, etc. He gave toilet training and learns some cultural
behaviour . He tries to learn right and wrong behaviour by reward and
punishment . Love, sympathy , affection concept of ownership, health and
hygiene, kinship system also develop in this stage by the role of family
member, peer group , friends, neighbor etc.
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Stages of socialization
• According to H. M .Johnson the main stages of socialization are
1. Oral stage.
2. Anal stage.
3. Oedipal/ Identification stage.
4. Adolescence stage.
Besides that we can find other stages of socialization such as.
a. Young stage.
b. Adult stage.
c. Old stage.
• Oedipus/ Identification stage :- It start from 3-4 years and remain up to 12
years. In this stage, children perform his role as an active member of family
and society. After the age of 6 year, the child is able to understand sexual
differences. So a male child is suffering from “Oedipus complex.”(the feeling
of jealously towards father and loves towards mother). In the same way
female child is suffering from “Electra complex” ( The feeling of jealously
towards mother and love towards father.) The boy tries to identify himself
with the father and girls with mother .child learns many more from family,
teacher, friends, different associations, group, institution etc. to perform
social role.
• Adolescence stage :- This stage start from 13 years and continuous 19
years. It is very important stage of social life because in this stage individual
is in pressure due to physical and psychological changes. They like more
freedom than the control of parents. They learn different extension of
social life. Teacher, family, friends, different institution, association etc are
the main agents of this stage.
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• Young stage:- It start from 20 and remains up to 35 years. They learns

various types of social norms, values, religion, ideology etc and
internalizes them. They learn family life, rights and duties, Types of socialization
responsibilities, and start professional life. Government, occupational • Primary
organization, friends, etc. are main agents. • Anticipatory
• Adult stage:- It start from 36 and remains 60 years. In this stage they • Developmental
take educational and socio-cultural and economic responsibility and • Resocialization.
rituals rites of their children and parents . They teach social way of life Process of socialization
to their children. Different organization, workplace, parents, • Imitation
government, friends helps to socialize individual. • Suggestion/direction
• Old stage:- Above 60. • Tranning.
• Identification.
• Language .
• Reward and punishment etc.

Importance of socialization Social and cultural change

• To convert biological being in to social being. • What is change?
• To develop personality. • Simply the term change means any alteration, variation, difference or
• To provide knowledge about society. modification in any object and idea over a certain period of time.
• To maintain social order. • It is an ever present phenomena.
• To transform culture. • It is the law of nature.
• To promote social harmony. • It is an universal phenomena.
• Helps to become discipline. • It is the process of forming new thing, idea etc. by modification or
• To develop right aspiration in life. other process.
• Reduce social distance.
• Provide scope for building the bright future.

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What is social and cultural change?
• What is social change?
• In sociology , society means complex network of social relationship.
• Social change means the alteration in established pattern of social
relationship and process of interaction.
• The modification in different units of society or the structure and function
of society is social change.
• It refers to any significant alteration over time and behavior pattern.
• The modification that affect the existing pattern of human relations, social
system and social organization is social change.
• Actually, it refers to any modification in social process , social structure,
social system, standards of conduct and its function.
Definition of social and cultural change.
• According to MacIver “ social change is the change in human
relationship”
• M. D. Jenson defines that social change is the modification in ways of
doing and thinking of people.
• Talcott Parsons said that cultural change is related to the change in
idea, Value, knowledge, science and symbolic system.
• In conclusion socio-cultural change means alteration, variation,
modification and difference in the process of interaction and material
and non-material way of life of people.
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What is cultural change?
• Simply cultural is the creation of human being.
• Cultural change means any alteration in the material and non-
material culture.
• It is the modification that affect in belief to the invention and use of
material object.
• It is the variation in any branch of culture that includes art, science
philosophy, knowledge , law, transportation and communication
system and other technological system and so on.
Characteristics of socio-cultural change.
• It is universal phenomena.
• Definite prediction is not possible.
• It is continuous process.
• The speed of socio-cultural change is not uniform.
• It may have chain relationship.
• It depend on technology and environment,
• It may be planned ,unplanned or revolutionary.
• It is affected by internal and external factors.
• There are various causes and process of socio-cultural change.
• It is temporal.
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• Evolution:-It is a process of changing continually from simple to complex.

Process of socio-cultural change. As the society moves from simple to complex, there may be emergence of
new law, institution social relations etc. By this process social structure,
1. Evolution social relations, tradition ,custom or material and non-material culture may
2. Discovery. change.
3. Diffusion • Discovery:- When new knowledge , technology, idea ,method etc are
4. Innovation. discovered and put to use, it brings change on human society and culture.
5. Migration. • Diffusion:- The culture originated in one place and spread other places. In
6. Revolution. this process the original culture may lead change.
7. Modernization. • Innovation:- It is a new use of existing knowledge, idea , technology etc.
8. Industrialization . Due to innovation people use new technology that changes their socio-
9. Urbanization and development cultural life.
10. Acculturation. • Migration:- People migrate one place from another for comfort and facility.
In this process they carry cultural traits and social behavior .And , they also
11. Assimilation. influence with the socio- cultural life of the place where they have
12. Westernization. migrated. It leads socio-cultural change .
13. E-governance and e-commerce.
14. Globalization etc.

Educational factor
Factors of social and cultural change. Education is a main factor of socio-cultural change because;
• It can play important role to change our outlook, attitudes , patterns of
• There are different factors and forces of socio-cultural change. Some of social interaction , custom, tradition, belief etc.
them are; • It help to change our misunderstanding and made us rational.
• Educational factor • It helps to change existing economic system by the scientific use of natural
• Technological factor resources.
• Economical factor
• It helps to bring change in skill and develop our creativity.
• Demographic factor.
• Political factor. • It helps to change our superstitious belief by making clear vision and
• Biological factor. correct understanding about social and natural phenomena.
• Geographical/ physical factor. • It always inspire the new invention in the field of science and technology
which helps to bring unthinkable change and progress in socio- cultural life.
• It helps to develop self-confidence by which we are able to differentiate
between right and wrong.so it bring change in standards of conducts.

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• Economic factor • Technological factor

Economic factor brings changes in socio-cultural behavior because;
• It helps to change our living standards.
• When the economic status of individual and society is changes ,
there will be change in behavior , assumptions , activities and
perspectives.
• It help to bring change in education, health, communication and
other requirement.
• Karl Marx said that economy is the main cause of socio-cultural
change.
• It may bring change in existing socio-cultural system by developing
new technology.
• Technology is the important factor of socio-cultural change because;
• It changes in material environment and the adjustment pattern which
influenced the whole life of people.
• The development and use of modern technology helps to change our birth
to death rate, life expectancy, security system, fooding , dressing etc.
• It helps to bring change in traditional agricultural system, communication
and transportation system , production to consumption of goods and
services , Ways of doing, thinking, occupation , business and so on.
• It helps to change our knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, norms and values and
social structure and function.
• It influences our everyday life by changing our environment.
• It changes educational, economic , demographic, political system.
• It helps to solve various problems and develop international relations.

• Demographic factor;
• Human is the prime factor of socio-cultural change .
• The changes in population composition have a great impact upon
Causes of socio-cultural change.
society.
• It can bring changes in social relationship , modes of production, • Social and cultural movement.
political system etc. • Social problems.
• It helps to change our total way of life by making policy and programs. • Conflict.
• Scientific invention.
• Due to immigration and emigration various cultural groups come into
contact which rapidly change our language, religion, skill, fooding and • New desire and needs.
dressing habits etc. • Revolution.
• Environmental change.
• Different natural phenomena etc.
• Democracy.
• Planned efforts.

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• Desire for stability

Resistance of social and cultural change • Lack of belief towards change
• Although socio-cultural change is universal and continuous phenomena but in • Fear in new experiment
society all the changes are not well-come by people. So there are some resistance • Generation gap
in socio-cultural change .Some of them are ;
1. Traditional practices like custom, beliefs etc • Habit
2. Religious beliefs. • Conflict and war between two cultural groups
3. Illiteracy and ignorance. • Difficult geographical situation
4. Political and administrative defects • Rejection of new invention etc
5. Intellectual laziness
• Political instability
6. Lack of new invention
7. Less access in modern technology
8. Vested interested
9. Feeling of racial, geographical and cultural superity
10. Economic disparity and difficulty

11.

Actors/ agents of socio-cultural change. Pattern of socio-cultural change

• State and government. 1. Linear pattern (evolutionary process, straight line)
• Political parties. Theological stage Metaphysical stage Scientific stage

• Educational institution. 1. Waves pattern (up and down)

• Family.
• Great personalities /thinkers/philosophers etc. 2. Cyclinical pattern(rise and falls of civilization)
• Means of transportation and communication.
Rising phase Declining phase

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Impact /consequences of socio-cultural Role of technology to bring socio-cultural change

1. Our traditional agricultural system , production system,
change in Nepalese society. horticulture, animal husbandry etc. are improved by new
• Change in social structure.
technology. Technology enhances the quality and scale of goods
and services.
• Change in religious beliefs and values.
2. The advancement of technology in medical field helps to change
• Change in social institution. our birth and death rate. Internet treatment has become possible
• Change in education system. through computer it contribute to change our life expectancy.
• Change in technology. 3. Technology like aeroplane , cable car helps to reach different parts
• Change in economic system. of the world and climb highest mountain in just a few minutes
• Change in occupation pattern. 4. We can observed changes in our structure of building, fooding
• Change in the life style of people( eating, doing, wearing, entertainment …) clothing culture, social relations, way of celebration of feast and
festivals etc.
• Change in agricultural system, political system etc.

• By the use of social network people can share their ideas, knowledge,
amazing things with each-other .
• We can observed change in division of labour, family structure, birth
to death rituals etc.
• It has impact upon our business culture . We can used e-commerce,
e-banking for buying and selling goods and services • The invention of new technology like computer have influenced our
• Our traditional security system has been changed due to new system of entertainments , education, policies , games, philosophy,
technology. ethics, behaviour etc.
• It helps to develop our consciousness and create awareness about • The government’s role responsibility, accountability, service delivery
social ,political, technological issues. system etc. are change by the use of modern technology.
• We can observed many changes in the field of law, education,
profession, transportation etc.
• It helps to change our traditional mind setup and promote national
unity.
• It has profoundly altered our total way of life and our expectations .

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Difference between social and cultural change Social stratification

Social change
• Social change is the change in social
structure and function.
• It is the change in pattern of social
interaction
• It is the change in social relationship
• It affect the existing social system and
organization.
• It is fast process of change
• All the social changes are cultural
change
• It scope is limited.
Cultural change
• Cultural change is the change in
material and non-material
achievement of human being.
• It is the change in creation of man.
• It is the change in beliefs to
technology.
• It is slow process of change.
• All the cultural changes are not
social change.
• Its scope is wider.
• Simply the term social stratification means the process of layer
formation in human society.
• It is the division of society where different social groups are arrange in
to hierarchy of position that are unequal with rewards to power,
property, age , sex, caste, ability etc.
• It is the division of society in to higher, equal and lower strata in a
given society.
• It is the system of differentiation on the basis of power, property,
prestige.
• It is a process of ranking status which are commonly found in all
society.
• The division or placement of status is social stratification.
• Social stratification refers to existing social inequality in a society.

Definition of social stratification Characteristics of social stratification.

• According to R.W. Murray , “ Social stratification is the horizontal division • It is ancient.
of society into ‘high’ and lower social units. • It is in diverse forms.
• Talcott parsons said that division of person in higher and lower status in a • It is consequential.
social system is social stratification.
• It is universal.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff , “The process by which individual and groups are
ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as • It is social in nature.
stratification.” • It gives feeling of superity and inferiority .
• In conclusion, social stratification refers to the inequality and • It is both vertical and horizontal .
differentiation of status in human society.

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Function of social stratification. Types of social stratification

• Encourages hard work . • Open social stratification :- Education based, property based
• Helps to pursue the different professional job. stratification.
• Promote social unity and solidarity. • Closed social stratification :- caste based, age based, race based
stratification.
• Social control.
Causes of social stratification.
• Inspire to acquire a position.
• Basic difference in human being.
• Needs of social balance.
• Different needs.

Dimensions of social stratification Major basis of social stratification in Nepal

• According to Max Weber there are THREE major dimensions of social 1. Caste.
stratification. 2. Gender.
1. Economic dimensions of social stratification ( property). 3. Ethnicity.
2. Political dimension of social stratification (power). 4. Age.
3. Social dimension of social stratification( prestige) Besides that we can find other basis of social stratification such as
Property x power x prestige (p3) = dimension of social stratification. class, power, property, prestige , education etc.

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Stratification on the basis of caste :-
Caste is the major basis of social stratification in Nepal because,
1.It creates differentiation and inequality among the members of society.
2. It creates different layers in society.
3. It creates the feelings of superity and inferiority among the members of
society.
4. It divided people in to FOUR varna and 36 caste.
5. It helps to determine the rights and obligations of individual and group.
6. It creates heterogeneity in society.
7. It determine prestige and social honors .
8. It helps to determine status of individual and group.
9. It divided people and some people are placed on higher and some are
lower.
• Stratification on the basis of ethnicity
Ethnicity is another basis of inequality in Nepal because,
1. It helps to determine the status of people which represent inequality .
2. The language, dress, festivals etc. of Aryan are treated higher than
others.
3. It helps to formed a group on the basis of geographical area , culture etc.
which create inequality.
4. It creates superity and inferiority
5. It creates highness and lowness.
6. It helps to determine social prestige.
7. It promotes unequal distribution of power, property and prestige.
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Stratification on the basis of gender
Gender is the major basis of social stratification because,
1. Nepalese society is patriarchal society so the status of male is higher
than female.
2. It creates inequality between male and female.
3. It is a process of grading, classification on the basis of identity.
4. It creates hierarchical line between male and female and determine
unequal rights for male and female.
5. By this system, male and female are placed in higher and lower status.
6. The condition of women are worse off than men due to gender
discrimination.
7. It creates economic, Educational, political social inequality between male
and female.
8. It distributes unequal rewards between male and female and women are
generally treated as subordinate to men.
9. It is the main basis of division of labour, decision making process.
Stratification on the basis of age
Age is one of the major basis of social stratification in Nepal because,
1. Age is ascribed status of human being which is related with
maturity and experiences .
2. Every society is stratified on the basis of age because it determine
individuals status, role, responsibility ,respect etc.
3. In Nepalese society certain opportunities and responsibilities are
provided on the basis of age. For e.g. One has to attain certain age
to cast vote (18 years), to go to school (6 years), to get citizenship
(16 years), to marry (20 years) to get allowances from the
government (70 years) to enrolled civil service etc.
4. It distributed rights and duties, privileges and responsibility for
individuals.
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Social stratification on Association and Group • Nepalese society also stratified on the basis of social group.
• All groups have not equal status and prestige.
• What is social association? • The status of rich group is higher than poor.
• What is group? • In group is higher than out group
• Association and group both are the basis of social stratification in Nepal.
• Primary/ involuntary is higher.
In Nepal most are the associations are related with occupation and
occupations related to social prestige. • Powerful is higher status.
• Occupations are ranked in to higher and lower on the basis of educational • Educated higher.
qualification, experiences, responsibility etc.
• The status of engineer’s association , medical association etc. are higher
than student’s association, barber association etc.
• Among all the association state can hold higher position in human society.

• Social problems are subjective in nature because a particular situation

What is social problem? becomes a social problem only after the awareness of people about it
and felt threat by this condition. But we can find some universal social
• Simply social problems are the situation of unadjustment and problems such as crime.
difficulties which is fell by large number of people and wants to • Whenever the people of certain society are deprived from their basic
correct and remove it. social rights and facilities than social problems are arises .
• The situation that negatively affect majority of people in a particular • Undesirable condition that disturb or damage society.
area at a particular time and people feels something can be done
collectively to correct it , is social problem.
• Social problems means social issues that affect a large number of
people in a society
• When a large number of people feels that a particular situation is a
threat of our society and we ought to be done something or eliminate
these condition ,is called social problem.

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Definition of social problems Types /causes of social problem

• L.K. Frank defines that any difficulties or misbehaviors of a fairly large • Economic type of social problem such as poverty.
number of persons which we wish to remove or correct is social • Biological type of social problem such as physical disorder.
problems.
• Cultural type of social problem such as untouchability.
• A. W. Green defines that social problem is a set of conditions which
are defined as morally wrong by the majority or substantial minority • Psychological type of social problem such as suicide .
within a society .
• In conclusion, social problem is a condition threatening the well being
of society.

Major social problems in Nepal Solution of different social problems

• Poverty. • Some ways and methods of solution are,
• Unemployment. • Proper Socio- economic policy and planning and its implementation.
• Crime ( Organized crime and white color crime, cyber crime..etc) • Citizen should be educated in regards their rights, responsibilities and the
• Inequality and discrimination. procedure of the government.
• Brain drain . • Public awareness program should be conducted against discrimination.
• Corruption. • Creating more and more opportunity by Industrialization .
• Conflict. • Educational reforms.
• Drug addiction.
• By providing social security.
• Child labour.
• By developing positive attitudes.
• Violence against women (rape, domestic violence, jhuma pratha , dowry ,
chaaupadi ….etc.) • Good governance.
• Juvenile delinquency/offending. etc.

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• Providing good guidance by parents, teachers, responsible persons to

the young stars . Social control
• Use of modern technology. • Every society develop some mechanism or process to bring social
harmony and social order.
• Proper enforcement of law.
• Simply social control means a way in which people’s thought, feeling
• Reconstruction of society.
and behaviour are regulated in social system.
• Providing social equity, justice and liberty to all.
• The system of devices where by society brings its member into
We can used remedial and preventive method to solve different conformity with the accepted standard of behaviour.
social problems.
• It refers to all the ways and means by which society enforces
conformity to its members .
• The enforcement of conformity by society upon its member either
by law or social pressure is social control.
• It is those mechanism by which any society maintains social unity.
• It is a kind of methods used to reduced deviance behaviour in society.

Definition of social control. Characteristics of social control

• Ogburn and Nimkoff defines that social control refers to the pattern • Universal and social in nature.
of pressure which a society exerts to maintained order and
established rules. • Related with time and places.
• Manheim defines that social control is the some of those methods by • It is aimful.
which a society tries to influence human behaviour to maintain a • Related with social well fare.
given order.
• It has its own methods and means.
• Horton and Hunt said that social control is a complete process where
a society provided security to its member and conformity to their
prospect.
• Actually social control refers to a mechanism that regulate individual
and group behaviour leading to conformity of a given society or state.

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Needs or importance of social control Types of social control

• According to Karl Manheim there are two types of social control
• Social control is necessary for human society to bring conformity, solidarity and 1. Direct
continuity . 2. Indirect
• To maintain social order. Kimball young
• To regulate the behaviour of individual and group. 1. Positive
• To protect social interest and satisfy common needs. 2. Negative
• To bring peace and prosperity. Bernard
• To provide social sanction. 1. conscious
• To provide social unity, cooperation for social existence. 2. unconscious.
• To change attitudes and maintained social balance. According to C.H. Cooley ,on the basis of means of social control there are two types of
• To control animal desires and interest of individual and integrate them into society. social control
• To satisfy biological, psychological , and social needs of people. 1. Formal social control
• To control delinquency and crime. 2. Informal social control.

Means/ mechanism / methods/ agencies of Chapter- 4

social control Nepali society and culture.
1. Formal means of social control Historical development of Nepalese society
• Family
• State and law. • Nepal has been one of the settlement area of pre-historic human
• Coercion . beings.
• Education and teacher.
2. Informal means of social control • According to Vansabali Nepal has been ruled by Gopal and Mahispal
• Religion dynasty, Kirati dynasty, Lichchhavi Dynasty.
• Tradition, custom, beliefs.
• Public opinion. • Before unification Malla ruled over Nepal .
• Social suggestion. • The famous Anthropologist of Nepal Dor Bahadur Bista divided or
• Humors and satire.
• Ideologies etc. sketch out the following time frame to understand the historical
development of Nepal.

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Kirati dynasty
1. The ancient period
• The Abhir rule in Nepal was replaced by Kirati tribe.
- Gopal and Mahispal dynasty.
• They established strong and powerful kingdom in the valley.
- Kirti dynasty.
• Yalung/ Yalumber was the first and powerful king among the Kirati
-Lichhavi dynasty kings.
2. Malla dynasty (Mediaval period) • Animal husbandry and farming was the main base of economy and
3. The Modern period trade and commerce were highly developed.
• They developed different towns and contributed in the fields of art and
Gopal and Mahispal dynasty architecture.
• They were the first ruler of Nepal. • Kirateshwor Mahadev, Birupakshaya were constructed and monarchal
system also established.
• Gopal and Mahispal were cow and buffalo headers.
• The name of Nepal has been used from the Gopal period.

Lichhavi period
• Lichhavis were migrated to Nepal from India and established a very
prosperous and capable administration in Nepal.
• They used their knowledge, skills, power for the betterment of local
people.
• They created a concept of nation and nationality and introduced a
concept of pragmatism which helped in strengthening Nepali society
and culture.
• Mandev, Amshubarma, Narendra Dev etc were famous king of that
time.
Lichhavi Period is known as the golden period of Nepal because
• Systematic development of society and culture of that time.
• Documentation of the history of that time.
• Extension of geographical area.
• Establishment of cottage industries.
• Good diplomatic relationship between Tibet, China and India.
• Production of first coin i.e. “manangka”
• Strong and decentralized administrative system of that time.
• Well organized social system.
• Religious tolerance of that time.
• Systematic economic development.

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• Construction of different art and architecture such as
Managriha, kailashkut Bhawan, Bhadeadhivaas, Changu
Narayan temple , stone tab , Pati-Pauwa, Temple, Gumba
etc.
• Development of pagoda style of architecture.
• Establishment of trade organization.
• Establishment of strong nation.
• Peace, prosperity and stable political system.
• Development of literature.
• All round progress of that time.
• Administrative/ political system
• They develop strong administrate system under the
dynamic leadership of king.
• The king was supreme power holder and the country was
divided in to several administrative units such as Tala, Drung
etc.
• Antarashan and Parmashan were in practiced.
• They organized army which is headed by King.
• Council of minister was formed under Mahasamanta.
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• Socio-economic system of Lichchhavi
• Society was based on Hindu varna system and people were divided
in to 4 varna and 18 caste.
• Guthi was established for social well-fair.
• Sati system, child marriage, joint family system were in practiced.
• The economic system was quite well off compared to present
position.
• Agriculture , animal husbandry , business, government services
were the main means of livelihood.
• Land was classified and tax system was systematized .
• Channel was built for irrigation.
Malla period
• Malla dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Nepal .
• The Malla period begins with the same characteristics of previous
Lichchhavi period.
• Malla period was highly affected by political instability.
• They developed strong Hindu culture with due respect to Buddhism.
• Malla period is known as glories era in the history because of the highly
developed art , architecture, religious tolerance and systematic
development of that time.
• Ari dev malla, Jayasthi Malla, Bhupatindra Malla, Pratap Malla, Siddhi
Narshinga Malla, Jaya Prakash Malla etc were leading king of that time.
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• Administrative/ political system of Malla period.

• Socio- economic system of Malla period
• Society was based on caste system and people were
divided in to 4 varna and 36 caste.
• Dolaji system, sati system, child marriage etc were much
more rigid than the before
• Jayasthi Malla tries to systematized society under the basis
of caste system.
• He systematized law and economic fine were taken from
the criminals instead of physical punishment.
• Economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry,
trade, cottage industry, etc.
• Land was divided and measurement system were
systematized.
• The king was apex in the legislative, executive , judiciary and
military force.
• Nepal was a strong and powerful kingdom before it was
divided in to 22 and 24 principalities and the division of
Kathmandu valley.
• Religious and cultural system of Malla period.
• Hinduism was the main religion but Buddhism was in
practiced .
• Islam religion was introduced during the period of Ratna
Malla.
• Different types of festivals were celebrated and art and
architecture were developed.
• Nepal Bhasa and Sanskrit were state language.

• Socio- economic system of modern Nepal

Modern Period • Before 2007 B.S. Nepalese society was highly influenced by
Hinduism.
• The modern era of Nepalese society and culture begins with the victory of • It is heterogeneous society and it is known as multi-ethnic,
multi-cultural, society.
Prithivi Narayan Shah of Gurkha over Kathmandu valley.
• Now, we are trying our best to practices pluralism in different
• He unified various small states and emphasis nation, national industries,, extension of national life.
trade, art, architecture etc. • Agriculture, animal husbandry , trade, industries, employment
• In his period policy of existence were established. etc are the main means of livelihood.
• After Prithivi Narayan shah there were many external and internal conflict • The main characteristics of modern economy are,
• Agro-based economy.
within royal family. • Mixed economy.
• As a result of conflict Junja Bahadur Rana took power of state and Rana • Planned economy.
family ruled Nepal for 104 years. • Market economy.
• Cooperative economy etc.

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• Administrative/ political system of modern period. • Religious and cultural system

• Active monarchical system. • Hinduism.
• Rana ruling system. • Secularism
• Multi-party democracy system. • Religious tolerance
• Party-less panchayat system • Cultural pluralism
• Decentralization (Five development region). • Constructions of different art and architecture such as
• 14 zone and 75 district. Singhadarbar, roads, different buildings…….
• Village level to national level administrative units.
• Judiciary .
• Multi-party democracy system.
• Republican system with federalism

The main achievements of modern period. • Religious secularism.

• Unification of Nepal. • Fedralism.
• Proclamation of civil code. • Republican political system.
• Abolition of sati (1977) and slavery system (1980) • Fundamental human rights.
• Establishment of Darbar High school and Tri-Chandra college. • Various infrastructure development.
• Establishment of democracy. • International relationship.
• Beginning of development planning.
• Eradication of Birta system.
• Land reform.
• New education and decentralization.
• Economic development.

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The main festivals in Nepal are,

Religions and festivals in Nepal • Dashain.
• Tihar.
• Nepal is known as multi-religious and multi-cultural country. Some of • Buddhapurnima.
the major religion and festivals in Nepal are,
• Eid-Ul-Fitra
• Hinduism.
• Sakela Udhali
• Buddhism.
• Gaijatra.
• Islam
• Lhosar.
• Kirat Dharma etc.
• Chhat.
• Maghi.
• Holi etc.

Hinduism The main characteristics of Hinduism

• Hinduism is the largest religion of Nepal because 81.3% (census-2011)
people are the follower of this religion. • Concept of Trinity.
• It is originated from the root word ‘Indus’ which means the Aryan ways of • Polytheism.
spiritual and social life in river bank of Sindhu river. • Idol worshiping.
• It did not emerge from the teaching of single person. • Concept of heal and heaven / other world.
• It is the collection of spiritual ideas, philosophy, practices and paths. • Develop as a tradition.
• Veda is the holy book of Hinduism. • Concept of rebirth.
• By 4 veda and different literature Aryan describe and determine the social, • Four Asram and Karma theory.
political, cultural , religious and economic life which helps to developed • Caste system.
Hinduism. • Beliefs in soul.
• It has undergone many changes compared to the paste. • Different sects such as Shaivism, Bishnuism and Saktism.
• Dashain, Tihar, Mahasivaratri, Teej etc are some main festivals of Hinduism.

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• According to Buddhism there are Four Nobel truths

Buddhism 1. The world is painful.
• Buddhism is second largest religion of Nepal because 9% people 2. There are causes of pain.
(census 2011) are the follower of Buddhism in Nepal. 3. We can get relief from pain.
• It is based on the teaching and life of Gautam Buddha and focus on 4. There are 8 fold paths to eliminate suffering.
peace, non-violence and salvation. a. Right vision.
• It always focus if an individual follow hard facts he can get salvation b. Right speech.
without adopting karma kanda. c. Right action.
• Now more than 1 billion people are the follower of Buddhism all over d. Right livelihood.
the world. e. Right efforts.
• Tripitak is the holy book and Buddha purnima is the main festival of f. Right Determination.
Buddhism. g. Right mindfulness.
h. Meditation .

Characteristics of Buddhism Islam Religion

• Non-violence. • Islam is the 3rd largest religion of Nepal because 4.4% people are the
follower of Islam in Nepal.
• Concept of tolerance.
• In the Arabic language, the word Islam means “ surrender or
• Concept of rebirth. submission ” to the will of God.
• No beliefs on varna and karmakanda. • The follower of Islam is Muslim.
• Liberal and flexible religion. • It was propounded by Haj rat Muhammad , who is born in Saudi
• Different sects such as Hinyan, Mahayan, Bajrayan, Tantrayan. Arabia.
• It is monotheists religion and believed that “Allah ” is all powerful, all
• Lamaism and Stupa. knowing and supreme God who created the universe.
• Quran is holy text of Islam and Eid-Ui-Fitra is the main festival.

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Characteristics of Islam Religion
• Monotheist religion.
• Anti-idol worshiping.
• Direct approach to God.
• Namaj reading, Hajj, Zakat, Roja etc. are most important religious
activities.
• Brotherhood among Muslim.
Caste structure/System in Nepal
• Caste is an inseparable parts of Hindu society and culture.
• It is the functional sub-system of Nepalese society which divided people in
to higher, lower, untouchable caste.
• There are certain rules regarding eating, drinking, and social interaction
which are supposed to be followed by all caste. If the members of any
upper caste fail to adopt the way of life as decided by concerned caste
norms , s\he may liable to demote from his\her caste position.
• In Nepal caste system was introduced by Lichchhavi and Jayasthiti Malla
systematized the caste system on the basis of Hindu ideology at 14th
century A.D.
• Caste system was elaborated throughout the country by Janga Bahadur
Rana by Civil Code at 1910 A.D. and incorporated all the non-hindus under
the caste system.
• This system has been traditionally prevalent in the Hindu society of Khas,
Madehisi and Newar.
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Kirat Dharma
• Kirat Dharma is 4th largest religion of Nepal because 3.1% people are
the follower of Kirat Dharma.
• Traditionally Kirat Dharma has been followed by indigenous ethnic
group kirati.
• Yalember was the founder of kirat Dharma and Mundhum is holy
book.
• It is nature worshiping religion and worship ancestors , sun, moon,
wind, fire and the main pillar of house.
• Sakela Udhauli , sakela Uvauli is main festival.
• Guru Falgunananda is regarded.
• Caste system is an important unit of Nepalese social structure because the whole
Hindu society is divided into different segments and every segments has their
defined social status.
• According to Prayag Raj Sharma Nepalese caste structure can be studied on the
following basis. Basically Janga Bahadur Rana constitutes the caste system into
Four categories .
1.Tagadhari :- Literally thread wearing caste ( Janai lagaune )
a. Brahmin ( purbiya, Kumai, Jaisi, indian Brahmin etc )
b. Cheetri ( Thakuri, Khatri etc. )
2. Matwali :- Liquor using caste ( Jad Raksi Khane)
a. Namasinya Matwali ( Newar, Rai, Limbu,gurung, Magar etc.)
b. Masinya Matwali ( Bhote, Gharti, Tamang , Tharu etc. )
3. Pani Nachalne Choichito Halnu naparne ( Choichito chalne, impure but touchable.)
-Muslim, Dhobi, Kusule, Kasai, Kumale, foreigners etc.
4. Pani Naclelne Choichito Halnu parne :-Untouchable ( Choichoto nachalne, Achut)
- Kami, Damai, Sarki, Chyame, Pode, Dom, Mushar etc.
Giri, puri, bharati, sanyasi etc are not divided into caste system.
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The peculiar features of caste system in Nepal

• Hindus are superior than others.
• Goat eaters are superior than Buffalo eaters.
• Buffalo eaters are superior than Pork eaters.
• Pork eaters are superior than Beef eaters.
• Onion and garlic user are inferior.
• Liquor using caste is inferior than tagadhari.
Not only food habits , caste hierarchy can found on the basis of birth
and marriage such as ,
1. Brahmin.
2. Chettri.
3. Baishaya.
4. Sudra.

• The caste system is still serving today but the rules are not as rigid as
The main characteristics of caste system in they were in the past.
Nepal • The main causes of changing caste system in Nepal are;
• Modern education.
• Closed system. • Urbanization, industrialization.
• Rigid system. • Development of science and technology.
• Segmental division of society. • State policy.
• Rise of untouchability movement.
• Restriction.
• Democracy.
• Male supremacy. • Role of NGOs /INGOs
• Untouchability. • International humanitarian law .
• Socio-cultural change etc.
• Endogamy etc.

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• The eight census of Nepal (1991 A.D.) has provided the data on caste
Ethnic group and interrelationship among and ethnic composition of the population for the first time.
them. • Population on the basis of caste and ethnic group (census 2011 A.D.)
• What is ethnic group ?
Caste and ethnic group Population
• Nepal is multi-ethnic, multi-language and multi-cultural country.
• From the Himalayan region to tarei region different caste and ethnic groups Chettri 16.6%
are residing here from pre-historic period.
Brahmin 12.2%
• All together 59 ethnic groups and more than 123 linguistic groups have
been living in Nepal ( Census 2011 A.D.) and they have their own socio- Magar 7.2%
cultural identity.
Tharu 6.6%
• Ethnic groups are classified on the following bases;
Tamang 5.8%
1. Geographical:- Himali, Hill and Terai.
2. Language :- The Indo-Aryan speaking group and Tibeto-Barman Newar 5%
speaking group.
Yadav 4%
3. Origin :-Indo-Nepalese, Tibeto- Nepalese and Indigenous Nepalese .

• All ethnic group have their own cultural practices, national origin,
language, religion etc. but all ethnic group of people are interrelated in • The interrelationship between different ethnic groups are;
socio- cultural, eco- political and technological parameter. • They are interrelated on the basis of religious tolerance .
• The relationship between different ethnic is basically peaceful because • Socio-cultural development.
they cooperate each-other and equally respect their ethnic pride or ethnic
identity. • Technological development.
• They follow different religion and celebrate different festivals but they • Territorial boundary.
have religious tolerance and work together for the development of nation.
• They have a feeling of togetherness and respect.
• Infrastructure development.
• The peaceful co-existence of all ethnic groups represent unity in diversity. • Constitution.
• After the process of unification, ethnic group of people feels that we are in • Basically peaceful.
domination.
• From the recent years , the question arises the role, participation and
benefit sharing of caste and ethnic groups . So there are some ethnic issues
in Nepal.

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Ethnic issues in Nepal are; • For the solution of mention above issues;
Ethnic groups constitute a significant portions of the population but they have
been discriminated, marginalize and dominated in terms of education, political 1. Government should address their ethnic identity by
and economic opportunity etc. so there are some ethnic issues;
restricting the state.
• Identity and co-existence.
• lack of proper representation in governmental and semi- governmental 2. Government should work for psychological unity.
level.
• Social inclusion.
3. Assure proper representation by practical legal system.
• Ownership and use of local resources. 4. Provide short-term special rights.
• Lack of opportunity.
5. Provide an opportunity in decision making process.
• Poverty.
• Discrimination in the name of caste. 6. Provide some rights to use local resources.
• Illiteracy , unemployment. 7. Develop awareness among the people about their co-
• Unequal distribution of economic resources. existence.
• Ethnic autonomy.
• Self-governance etc. 8. Provide economic opportunity.
• Meaningful participation in decision making process. 9. Should develop patriotism ,nationalism.

• Mobilized public awareness against caste based Unit- 5

discrimination etc.
• Educational and social reforms. community Development.
• Good governance. What is community development?
• Government should give guarantee to fundamental rights • Community development is process, method, strategy, techniques
and duties. etc. by which local community can be developed themselves using
the local resources, manpower, skill, knowledge etc.
• Political parties and social welfare organization should
play active role to educate people about co-existence. • In this process, local people are made aware of their problems with
the assistance of government and non-government organization.
• All citizens should make environment of working together
to protect national interest. • It is a process where community members come together to take
collective action to solve common problems.
• It is a process by which community mobilize its resources and takes
responsibility for its own development.
• It is the strategy of rural development or way of working with
community to solve problems.

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• In community development approach, it is widely accepted that local people are
key decision maker and master of their own area. So all the development work
should be start from the Felt-need and Initiative of community.
• It is bottom-up model of development and a set of practices which helps to solve
different issues.
• It is a process of change from the traditional way of living in rural communities to
progressive way of living.
• It is a process of local decision making and the development programs designed
to make their community better place to live and work.
• It is an efforts to provide opportunities for qualitative living standard of
community.
• By this process, the marginalized and isolated people are brought in to the main
stream national development through their active participation.
• It always focus empowerment, participation, organization etc. to solve
community problems.
• It is a participatory and people empowering development model.
• In community development it is believed that change in the attitudes
of the people is as important as the material achievement.
• It is a process of change by which people’s efforts are united to
improved their economic, social, cultural and technological life.
• It is a movement designed to promote better living for the community
with the active participation and initiative of community.
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Definition of community development
• Todaro , “ community development is a multi-dimensional attitudes of
people and institutions involves the acceleration of resources and
opportunities and reduction of absolute poverty.”
• Schoen defines that community development is a process of building
community by sensitizing , enabling and motivating people and
organization.
• Biddle and Biddle defines that community development is a social process
by which human being can become more competent to live with and gain
some control over local aspects of frustrating and changing world.
• In conclusion community development is a planned efforts by which local
people try to bring desired positive change in socio- economic,
technological way of life by use of local resources.
Nature of community development.
• It emphasis on peoples participation.
• It focus on marginalizes, poor and isolated people.
• It start from local peoples need and common efforts.
• Peoples values given consideration
• Peoples are greatest resources
• It is holistic approach of development.
• It is the approach of learning by doing.
• It focus on the unit called community.
• It is inclusive and comprehensive process.
• It has its own contextual meaning.
• It is bottom up approach.
• Process of transformation.
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Objectives/ Aims of community development History of community development.

• To empower local people to solve different problems.
• To organized and aware people.
• To increased peoples capacity.
• To bring local people in the process of national development.
• To mobilize and use local resources.
• To bring planned positive change with the active participation of local people.
• To reduced social, religious and cultural conflict.
• To develop trust among the members of community.
• To protect existing diversity and environment.
• To reduced poverty and bring prosperity.
• To create an atmosphere for the well being of society.
• To organized local people and promote active participation in development.
• To improve the quality of life of people.
• First of all the concept of community development was formally introduced by American
municipality in 1930 A.D.
• It was formally Implemented in 1940 in Ghana by the financial and technical assistance of British
Government. The main focus was to promote participation of backward group of rural people in
infrastructure development.
• India adopted it in 1950s
• In Nepal community development program was not new . Indigenous organizations for
community development have found even in the Malla period. 1920 municipality cleaning office,
Chandra weaving extension society, Agricultural Council, welfare society 1935-1950.
• The formal community development program was started in Nepal in 1953 from TVDP (Tribhuvan
Village Development program) with financian and technical assesscent of US government.
• 1956s the program was being continued wtth the assiatance of Indian Government with some
modification. In 1960 TVDP was replaced by PDP, Back to village national campaign(1967) was
started.
• Jiri multi-purpose project, small farmer development program (1975), IRDP, production credit for
women are some community development program.

• Community development activities are conducted on the following

• After 1990s all the plans , policies, program focused on community principles.
development as one of the key components of over all development. • Identification of felt-need.
• we can find various community development program such as Built • Mobilization of local resources.
our village ourselves (1995), special area development program • Use of appropriate technology.
,Village Development and self- help program(1996) ,Remote Area
• Participation of local people.
development Program (1992). PDDP (1995), women development
program, micro credit project for women(1994), Bisheswor with poor • Empowerment of local people.
,Farmer managed irrigation system, Local Governance program, • Equal benefit sharing etc.
Establishment of Gramin Bikash Bank, community education, Techniques of community development.
community forestry, community medicine, community police etc. Advocacy campaign.
Networking and coordination.
Participatory monitoring and evolution .
PRA, RRA, PPP etc.

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Approaches of community development.
• We can find different forces and factors of community development
which are active to bring desired positive change in community .
Some approaches of community development are;
1. Community participation.
2. Community mobilization.
3. Communication and community education.
4. People’s empowerment etc.
5. Indigenous and Appropriate Knowledge/ technology etc.
Community participation is must for local
development because,
• It helps to increase the personal and institutional capacity of local people.
• It helps to develop self-image feeling of “ we can .”
• It increase indigenous expertise .
• It helps to develop sense of responsibility in development activities .
• It motives people to work together and minimize social, cultural, religious
conflicts.
• It helps to develop feeling of ownership and the values of development.
• It reduced the dependency of professionals .
• It helps to reduce development cost and creates good working
environment.
• It promotes economic growth and protect environment.
• Sustainable development.
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Community participation
• Simply community participation means involvement of people in
development activities to solve their common problems.
• It is a method of development by which local people are actively involve in
problem identification, planning, resource mobilization, monitoring and
evolution of project.
• community development believed local people are the soul guider for
local development and they have right to participate in the decisions that
affect their lives.
• In this process, it is believe that people should be the actor, master,
producer, exports not to the consumer of development.
• It is an active process by which more people are brought into decision
making process.
• It is a process which influence the direction of development to enhance
income, self –reliance etc.
The basic ways of community participation in
development are;
• Involvement in need identification.
• Project formulation to execution.
• Mass sharing of the benefit of development.
• Mass contribution to the development activities.
• Decision making in development.
• Mass meeting and discussion to educate people about different
development programs.
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• The purpose of community development is to mobilize local people

Community Mobilization and resources to increase self-reliance for sustainable development.
• Different CBOs , Mothers Groups , Focus groups, Consumers groups,
• Simply community mobilization means organizing people living in a Users groups etc. helps in community mobilization.
community to bring about elements of change. • By the facilitation of change agent, community people are ready to
• Community mobilization is an approaches of community development by mobilize their natural and human resources for their betterment.
which local people are involve in development activities.
• It is dynamic and participatory process of empowering weak isolated
groups for their socio-economic and technological advancement .
• It is an effective tools for poverty reduction and resource mobilization and
the success of development is determine by the mobilization of
community.
• So if we are able to mobilized local people and local resources, we can
achieve the goal of development.

The role of community mobilization in

Communication and community education
development are,
• It helps to contribute to complete development work easily, on time • What is communication?
and very low cost.
• Communication is a process of transformation of information from one
• It helps to increased social unity , awareness, management capacity person to another in clear and meaningful manner.
skill , participation etc.
• Basically it is the exchange of facts, ideas , opinion , suggestion emotion
• By this process, people fell that the programmed is for them and it is
their common property. and other information from one person to another. It is exchange of
information between sender and receiver in a society.
• It helps to develop infrastructure.
• It helps to reduced absolute poverty. • It is a process of development because it is an import part of management.
• The local can gets employment opportunity. • It is a means through which people of community are linked together in
order to achieve better life.
• Local people knows the condition of resources and its utilization etc.

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• Community development is a process of helping a community to
strengthen itself and develop potentiality.
• Communication is an essential tool for community development because
community development forms the platform for national development but
this could only be achieved through an effective communication . It can
play key role in community development such as ;
• People’s participation.
• People’s empowerment.
• Reduction of poverty .
• Local people’s mobilization etc.
• What is education?
• Simply education is a forms of learning in which knowledge, skills,
habits etc. are transformed from one generation or group to another.
• It is the third eye of individual and it contributes unparalleled role for
personality development.
• We can find different education method such as teaching, training,
discussion, research etc.
• community education is a process of learning skills, knowledge,
methods etc. which can play important role in community
development.
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• Why it is important?
• Every community people have their own communication system
which helps to understand particular problem and find out its
solution.
• It helps to develop self-reliance.
• It helps to develop awareness among the local people about their
development process.
• It empower people by the access of information.
• Human and natural resources can be used in proper manner by
communication.
Role of community education in development
• Community education is one of the fundamental factor of community
development which can play great role to bring planned change in
communication, health, agricultural sector etc.
• It is the driving force for the national development and economic growth.
• It helps to change the bevaviour of local people and helps to organized
them.
• It is a kind of conciseness which helps to identify their real problems and
findings the method for their solution.
• It helps improve personal and institutional capacity which is needed to
change attitude, unscientific practices etc.
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• It helps to develop and used new technology which is essential for
sustainable development.
• It helps to promote productivity and creativity.
• It is fundamental for peace and prosperity which helps to reduced
absolute poverty.
• The aims of community development is to empower local people
because in community development it is believed that local people do
have their own potentiality regarding both human and natural
resources.
• By empowerment, they can use their resources and make plan to
solve existing problems .
• Community organization, various training, issues related discussion ,
access of information etc. helps to empower people.
• The essential elements of empowerment are authority, resources,
information and accountability.
• People’s empowerment is an approach to community development
which helps to bring change in existing level to planned new level.
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People’s empowerment
• Simply empowerment means to give someone the confidence, skill,
freedom etc. to do something.
• Empowerment is a process which helps people to develop skills and
capacities, built self-confidence and make better decision to improve life.
• It means transforming existing power-relations in favors of those who faced
several limitations in exercising power and making voluntary choice .
• It is a process of gaining power to control over external resources and
growth in inner self-confidence and capability.
• It means a process which helps people to understand their unique
potentiality and enable them to break barrios.
People’s empowerment is needed for
community development because,
• It helps to organized local people to solve common problems by common
efforts.
• It helps to make appropriate policy.
• Utilization of local knowledge, resources and technology is possible by
empowerment.
• It helps to develop own perception, judgement which contributes to
achieve sustainable development.
• Active and meaningful participation is possible by empowerment.
• It promotes self-help economic activities and enable local people to control
over local resources and facilities which are provided by development
agencies.
• It helps to bring well-being of society.
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Indigenous and Appropriate technology

• What is technology?
• In general language technology means use of tools machines etc. for
different work.
• Practical use of knowledge for solving problems or inventing useful
tools is technology.
• Man is tool using animal. Tools are technology that man are using for
making life easier.
• In sociology, technology means all the methods, tools, ideas and
techniques which are applied to the life of problems is technology.
• It is the product of human civilization.
Definition of technology
• Pascual Gisbert defines that technology may be consider a general
term to cover the totality of means and devices with which man tries
to adjust himself to or to control his material environment.
• In conclusion , use of tools, techniques, methods, process or
knowledge to make the life easier and better is technology.
• Systematic knowledge which is put into practice to control or solve
the problems that are effect the society and nature is technology.

What is indigenous technology? Characteristic of indigenous technology.

• Indigenous technology means a kind of technology which is based on • It is local
traditional techniques, local peoples knowledge and experiences. • It is changeable.
• It is local peoples science which is developed from the direct interactions of • It is based on everyday practices of people.
human beings and environment to solve their problems. • It is transmitted orally or other types of practices.
• Sometimes it can not be proved scientifically. • It is culture specific .
• it is not necessary that indigenous technology is always primitive , it can be • It is adoptive
modified in the course of time. for e.g. Hand aara , Panighatta, Using • It is intergenerational.
firewood for cooking, Dhiki, jato, Ayurved, Accupunture etc. • It is holistic
• It is cumulative etc.

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What is appropriate technology?
• Appropriate technology means that kind of technology which is suitable,
acceptable, or correct in a particular society or country,
• Technology that is suitable to the social , economical, environmental
conditions is appropriate technology.
• It is simple, cheap , profitable and easily available technology which can
fulfill human needs.
• It is a “midway” between the modern and indigenous technology.
• Sometimes it is known as intermediate technology or people centered
technology.
• It includes small scale technology modern hardware and software
technology.
• It is a set of knowledge or techniques that suit a particular area.
Criteria of appropriate technology.
• It should be affordable, cheap and simple.
• It should meets the actual needs of people.
• It should understood, controlled and maintained by the local user.
• It should be flexible and acceptable environmental impact.
• Installment , operation etc. would be within the economic reach of
local people.
• Use local material and renewal energy , if it is possible.
• sensitive and sustainable to community.
• Labour intensive.
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Definition of appropriate technology.
• E.F. Schumacher defines that appropriate technology is a simplest,
small scale , low-cost, and a new type of technology that can make
people productive and relatively independent.
• Some writer said that appropriate technology is “ a technology with
human face” and it is tools to prevails to bring sustainable
development.
• In conclusion appropriate technology means people friendly
technology. For e.g. Hand powered water pump , Bike, bicycle, Tractor
in terai region. Improved stove in remote area and gas and electricity
in urban area, Solar energy, bio-gas etc.
Role of indigenous and appropriate technology in community
development.
• It helps to bring sustainable development.
• It helps to preserve natural environment and eco-system.
• It makes people productive and creative.
• It used local material, skill, knowledge and helps to develop capacity
of local people.
• It helps to increase the self-help among the local people and create
employment opportunity.
• It helps to bring prosperity, progress in society by income generation
,mobilization of local resources and empowerment of people.
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• It helps to fulfill local peoples needs and transfer their life.
• It helps to develop self reliance and encourages local production.
• It helps to improve the quality of life of people.
• In the early 1970s many countries accepted that gender is one of the
most important issues of affecting their plan and policies.so they
focuses active participation of women in development activities
because they believed that women have been victims of injustices,
inequality, discrimination, poverty etc.
• Development is a process of positive change from the existing level to
the planned new level. The aims of development is to improve the
quality of life of people by reducing poverty, inequality, discrimination
etc. it is multidimensional process of change which provide an
opportunity for qualitative living standards.
• T.N. Chaturvedi said that development is a transformation of society.
• Robert Chember said that development is good change or well being
of all.
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Gender differences and role of women in
energy conservation and development.
• What is gender?
• Gender is socially and culturally determine differences in behaviour , role, status of man
and woman. It is used to refers to the behavioural differences between male and female
that are culturally based and socially learned.
• Gender is socially constructed role and exceptions associated with male and female.
• Kamala Vasin said that the social and cultural definition of men and women are called
gender.
• Ember and ember defines that differences between male and female that reflects
cultural expectations and experiences is gender.
• Gender is not only the issues of women but it is an approaches to analyzes development
issues in connection with target population in a given society.
• Gender and development means equal focus for male and female in development.
• Without the active involvement of women in development process, the
goal of sustainable development can not be achieve because they covered
more than 50% population in the total population.
• Global data suggested that gender differences is strongly co-related with
national poverty level. After Beijing conference the role and rights of
women in development are come to discuss. Women can play following
role in development activities:
• Problem identification.
• Planning, policy making, project formulation and its implication.
• Resource mobilization.
• Reduction of poverty, unemployment , inequality etc.
• Infrastructure development and economic growth.
• Awareness building .
• Solution of various problems.
• To bring positive change etc.
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• Gender inequalities remain throughout the world and are closely
related to poverty . Poverty, gender, and energy are interrelated.
• Energy is essential to life and all living organism. It provide a broader
set of livelihood options.
• Energy conservation can improve quality of life through reduced
poverty and inequality . It is a means of economic growth.
• Energy is very important in women’s daily lives because access to
modern energy enables economic advancement. It contributes
women’s economic empowerment by reducing time burdens and
provide an opportunity for entrepreneurship .
Application of sociological knowledge with
special reference Energy, Policy , Legal issues.
• In simple language sociological knowledge means methods,
techniques, knowledge about society which is develop through
scientific investigation.
• After 1970s , due to the failure of development program, it is
released that sociological knowledge is necessary for over all
development . It has become an important tool for planner and policy
maker.
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• Women can play important role in energy conservation .
• Man and women both used energy for production and to make their
work easier and better.
• But women are the active energy users and used conventional energy
for cooking and domestic work. So to achieve the goal of
development we should transform the traditional pattern of energy
using into commercial pattern.
• It helps to improved socio-economic and technological system and
provide greater economic opportunities.
• If women are trained the modern system of energy they can
contributes in energy conservation and environmental protection.
• Development also determine by the use of energy.
Application of sociological knowledge in the
fields of Energy.
• Simply, energy means the power comes from conventional and non-
conventional sources.
• Energy is must for living things in nature for their existence including
human being.
• As the global population is increasing the use of energy also
increasing. It may result the lack of sources of energy in future . Nepal
is also facing energy crisis. The over all energy consumption in Nepal
is largely dominated by traditional or non- commercial forms of
energy.
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• In the fields of energy, sociological knowledge can play important role
because,
• It helps to understand the actual condition of energy consumption
capacity of people and traditional knowledge of energy source.
• It helps to develop good plan for energy using and conservation.
• It helps to know the various sources of energy and its proper utilization.
• It contributes to minimize the problem of energy crisis.
• It encourages people to use renewable energy.
• It helps to change traditional behaviour of people about energy
consumption and helps to form new policies.
• It gives focus to bottom-up development model in policy.
• It helps to make realistic policy by scientific research.
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Application of sociological knowledge in policy
making.
Policy is a kind of guideline, principal etc. of government which aims to ensure
welfare of society through pre-determine goal. It depend upon the needs and
resources of people. Policy is a law, procedure , administrative action etc. of
government and other institutions to achieve long term goals. Sociology is an
academic subject that seeks to explain society. sociology has been helpful in
making social policy a success. It can play the following role.
• It helps to understand the needs of people and available resources by sociological
research which helps to form social policy.
• It can provide useful and reliable data for the formulation of national social
policy by various research.
• It can be use to check the impact of policy.
• It helps to form new policy which can address new social problems such as crime.
• It helps to minimize the point of controversy in policy making.
• It can provide valuable suggestion for government/ non-government organization
for the formulation of appropriate policy.
• It provides theoretical guideline for the formulation of policy.
Application of sociological knowledge in legal
issues.
• Law is social phenomena . It is needed for society to regulate individual or
group behaviour. Sociology is interested to study the sources of law, legal
system and its impacts upon society. society change law and law regulates
the society. So sociological knowledge can be used to identified different
legal issues by scientific research. Some legal issues in Nepal are,
1. Child labour
2. Protecting and promoting human rights.
3. Right to development.
4. Right to the use of new technology.
5. Right to employment.
6. Ethnic and minorities rights.
7. Equitable access to justice etc.
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Sociological knowledge can be used in legal

Issues identification and its solution
field
• To identified legal issues. • Sociology studies structure and function of society. Sociology provides facts
• To analyzed the impact of legal system. and evidence to the politician, administrator, policy maker etc which helps
to identify various social issues and provides its appropriate solution.
• To provide valuable suggestion about what law should be passed and • Sociological knowledge helps to identify various issues by the following
replaced by new one. process.
• To organized various discussion program about legal system with a. By scientific research.
stakeholders.
• To develop people friendly judicial system. b. By various issues related discussion/ interaction program.
• To provide information to law maker about people’s needs , behaviour and c. By scientific study of society.
forms of crime. d. By the use of scientific techniques for data collection.
• To set appropriate legal rule for the solution of different problems. As a development worker, practitioner , trainer, social mobilizer, planner,
• To drafting new law. policy maker, researcher, academician etc. sociologist tries to find out various
social issues and provide its solution.

• Sociology seeks to the solution of any human and social problem in Common characteristics.
practical ways.
• By making realistic policy and plan. • It is social in nature.
• By peoples mobilization and use of resources. • It is culture specific.
• By providing information about the nature and impacts of issues. • It is the product of man and his society.
• By providing knowledge of law, legislation. • It is related with change and continuity of society.
• It helps to fulfill human needs.
• It is different from one society to another society.
• It is related with social welfare .
• It is collective in nature.
• It is universal (except caste)

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Role of sociology in the development of Nepal
• Sociology has academic and applied use in present days. It is source
of knowledge and provide methods of solutions of different social
problems. Nepal is full of diversity and it has its own topographical
settings. The country is suffering from different socio-cultural and
techno-economical problems. So sociology can play important role in
the development of Nepal because it helps to understand actual
conditions of a country and helps to face different challenges of
development. The main role of sociology in development are ;
• To identified various problems by scientific research of society.
• To study the plural nature of society.
Role of civil engineer in community
development.
• Helps to develop various infrastructure.
• Provide technical knowledge.
• Use resources effectively and efficiently in development.
• Empower local people by providing information about the process of
development.
• Correct popular nonsense and helps to develop scientific outlook.
• Helps to reduced absolute poverty by providing knowledge about
entrepreneurship.
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• To collect real data.
• To make appropriate social wellfare policy and plan.
• To promote people’s participation in development activities.
• To utilize available resources.
• To maintain transparency in development activities.
• To analyze cause and consequences of development which helps to
form suitable development program.
• To find out the needs and interest of people.
• To enhance the local skills of local people.
• To develop infrastructure.
• To aware people about their rights and duties.
• To increase self-reliance.
• Helps to make participatory development program.
• Helps to reconstruct society by providing scientific knowledge about
technical ideas.
• Helps to develop unity among the people in the name of development.
• Civil engineer can play important role between government agencies and
the local people which helps to bring peace, prosperity and sustainable
development.
• Helps to develop appropriate technology which is needed for development.
• Helps to change the lifestyle of people.
• Civil engineer helps to promote sustainable and stable development of the
country by providing public service to meet general needs of people and
encourage economic development and improve quality of life of people.
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Class structure of Nepalese society. Characteristics of class system

• Class is principally, a type of social stratification where the people of
society are stratified in to various segments of social status.
• Similar status.
• The segment of the people of society who have sense of equality in own
group and the sense of superity or inferity with other group is called social • Social class is achieved status.
class. Class system is universal in nature and it exist due to the unequal • Social class is an open group.
access in resources. Ownership of property and wealth including
occupation are the chief basis of differences. • Class consciousness and class struggle.
• For Karl Marx, “The stratification of society on the basis of economic access • Less stable.
is social class.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff said that social class is the aggregate of persons • Class system is universal.
having essentially the same social status in a given society.
• Karl Marx said that the history of human society is the history of class
struggle . There are two main class in human society such as Bourgeoisie
and proletariat .

• Nepalese society also divided in to several classes from early period. • Simply we can understand Nepalese class structure on the basis of
• According to Chaitanya Misra ( a renowned sociologist of Nepal) The class system following categories ;
of Nepal can be divided into two board categories ;
1. Upper class • Upper class(ruling elite , large landholders , High level government
Aristocracy (Thakuri, Shah, Rana etc.) officers, High level businessman, industrialist) ,
Landlords. • Middle class (government officers, professionals, Skilled manpower,
Administrator, technical and business elites. small businessman/ merchants, administrator )
Powerful politicians.
2. Lower class. • Lower class( below poverty line peoples(25%), labour, landless
Petty traders. people, Peasant etc.)
Wage labour. • Class is determine mostly by economic access but sometimes it is
Tanants . used to represent groups of professors, engineers, doctors, farmers,
landless people. businessman, male, female etc.
marginal farmers /peasants

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Difference between caste and class

caste Class Caste Class

• Caste is unique features of Hindu
society so it is not universal.
• It is ascribed status.
• Caste is static system.
• There is sense of purity and
pollution in caste system.
• It is based on Hindu religion and
tradition.
• It is vertical hierarchical division of
Hindu society.
• Class universal social system
because it is found in all society.
• It is achieved status and one can
achieved it by efforts.
• Class is dynamic system.
• No sense of purity and pollution.
• It is based on economic access.
• It is horizontal division of human
society.
• It is closed system.
• Greater social distance.
• Conservative.
• Endogamous social unit.
• It is complex social system so the
members of society are divided
into 4 varna and 36 caste.
• Caste consciousness and
democracy can not go together.
• There is some restriction on food
habits, social relationship etc.
• It is open system.
• Less social distance.
• Progressive .
• Exogamous social group.
• There are only three main class
• Class consciousness promote
democracy.
• The members are free to eat and
established social relationship.

“Cooperation and conflict are two sides of a

same coin.” Discuss.

• The term cooperation is derived from Latin word “co” and “operari ”
which means joint work for common goal. It means working together
for a common purpose. It is goal oriented and conscious forms of
social interaction which arise when two or more than two person see
or released that we have common goal and we can achieve it by our
common efforts . It is mutual working together for the attainment of
a common goal.
• In simple language conflict means fight, war and so on. But in
sociology it is a kind of social process which helps to fulfill definite
interest . It is a kind of struggle between opposing forces, group, ideas
etc. It is a social process that bind people together in interaction. It is
that types of social process in which individual or group secure their
goal by violence or threat of violence.

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• Cooperation and conflict are two sides of a same coin because,

• In the absence of one process human society can not function smoothly . They are the product of
human society and interaction which is necessary for the betterment of social life.
• People can cooperates for certain goals not for all. So they wants to achieve their some ends by
conflict.
• They go side by side. For e.g. child loves his mother for the fulfillment of needs, satisfaction and
pleasure which she provide. At the same time he dislike her too because of discipline which she
imposed.
• Both contribute to develop socio- economic process.
• The relationship starting with cooperation changes into conflict and after its resolution again change
into cooperation.
• Conflict is a driver of cooperation. So we can understood one properly with taking account of other.
• Both are needed for progress and helps to bring change.
• Both provide an opportunity for individual to uplift his/her life.
• Both are universal and goal orient social process.
• Both helps to develop new ideas, technology etc. which is needed for the advancement of society.
• Both are fundamental for the social existence.
Differentiate among Tribe, Caste and ethnicity
• Tribe is a small social group usually living in a common territory ,
speak common language, practice common culture and united by the
ties of blood relationship. A distinct people who are not integrated in
to modern society. For e.g. Raute of Nepal, Eskimos of Central
America etc.
• Caste is closed and hierarchical system of Hindu society which is
based on birth and some time marriage. It divided society in to Four
Varna and Thirty-six caste such as Brahmin, Chhetrya, Baishaya and
Sudra.
• Ethnicity means the members of certain socio-cultural and politico-
economical group like a members of any other organization. It refers
to the sentimental attachment or commitment towards their own
cultural heritage, ethnic pride, national origin etc. such as Nepali,
Medhasi, Himali etc.

Tribe Caste Ethinicity

Tribe is an organized social group
who are united by the ties of blood
Caste is a social system Ethnicity is a kind of sentimental
attachment towards their identity. Clear the concept of Ethnicity and
relationship

They have their own language,
religion and territorial area.
They are isolated from the
influences of modern civilization
and wants to spend nomadic life.
There is no socio-cultural inequality
Tribe is homogenous group
No concept of purity and pollution
They are ready to sacrifice in the
name of their own tribe.
No restriction on dress and food
habits in their own tribe.
Caste is dominated by Hindu
religion.
Highly influences by modern
civilization and wants to live urban
or rural area.
It divided people into 4 varna and
36 caste
It is heterogeneous system
Untouchability is the basic
characteristics.
It create conflict among the people It helps to develop collective
in the name of high and low caste.. identity
Restriction on food habits, dress.
Social relationship etc.
It is unity formation process on the
basis of religion, language etc.
Ethnicity can be form on the basis
of settlement area.
It is unity formation process.
It helps to develop homogeneity.
Feeling of superity in the name of
identity.
It is nation building process.
differentiate it with caste
• The term ethnicity is derive from Greek word “Ethnos” which means
people or nation.
• Simply, ethnicity means the members of certain cultural group like a
member of any other organization. It refers to the sentimental attachment
or commitment towards their own cultural heritage, ethnic pride, national
origin etc.
• Ethnicity means those group of people’s feeling who wants to identify
themselves in the cultural ground by language, folk practices, religion ,
dress, history of ancestor etc. For e.g. Nepali, Indian, Himali , maithali etc.
• It is psychological as well as political consciousness of a certain group or
area.
• It is related with nationality, autonomy and sovereignty of people.

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Definition of ethnicity Difference between caste and ethnicity

• Foster defines that ethnicity is the forms of collective identity formation
process. caste
• Oxford Dictionary defines that ethnicity means a condition of • It is hierarchical division of Hindu
society
belongingness to a particular ethnic group and ethnic pride.
• It divided people into 4 varna and 36
• Collins English dictionary defines that ethnicity is the state or fact of caste.
belonging to a particular ethnic group. • It is social system.
• Cambridge dictionary :- A large group of people who have the same • It is related with Hinduism.
national, racial or cultural origins, or the state of belonging to such group. • It is closed social system
• In conclusion, the group of people who have cultural awareness and • It is based on birth and sometimes
consider superior than other because of their separate existence and marriage.
identity is ethnicity. • It is individual or group’s identity
formation process.
Ethnicity
• It is a kind of emotional
attachment towards identity.
• It helps to form common identity.
• It is psychological concept.
• It is related with nationality,
sovereignty and autonomy.
• It is dynamic concept.
• It involves emotion.
• It is national identity formation
process.

• Generally it refers to the process of unification of people within

Nation building process .
• What is nation building process?
• Simply nation is a historical construction of people with strong
community and the base of nationhood.
• It means the body of people who share a real or imagined common
history, culture identity, tradition, typically inhabitant a particular
country.
• Bergisk defines that nation denotes to the integrated and authentic
group of people living in a certain geographical unit.
• So simply nation building process means constructing or structuring
a national identity using the power of state.
the state.
• It is a process of establishing civic order and governmental
function in a country that are emerging from a period of war or
other types of activities.
• It is both revolutionary and evolutionary process.
• Nation is a kind of identity and nation building process means
common identity formation process.
• It always focus application of peoples collective energies and
knowledge to develop common identity.
• Power has been the main determining factor in the foundation
of nation.
• Security, political reforms, economic reconstruction , organized
psychology, feeling of coexistence are some essential steps of
nation building process.

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• Every country has its own types of nation building process.
• In the case of Nepal Gopal and Mahispal may be regarded as
the founder of Nepali nationhood. So our nation building
process started from ancient period .Prithivi Narayan Shah
highly contributed to sketch out the map of modern Nepal.
• It is awareness of common identity amongst the citizen
of a country . It is a sentiment which reflects solidarity or
patriotism among the people belonging to a nation.
• In sociology national integration means the inclusion of
all religious , cultural , caste and ethnic and linguistics
group in every activities of a nation in a particular
country.
• It is a process of geographical unity and cultural
assimilation.
• National integration is the awareness of a common
identity among the citizen of a country.
• Feeling of unity among so much of diversity.
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Meaning and definition of national
integration
• Integrated and authentic group of people having in a certain
geographical unit is nation.
• It is a unified political, cultural , and administrative entity.
• It refers to the group of people having common origin and
characteristics.
• National integration means emotional and psychological
attachment towards nation.
• It is a feeling of togetherness or oneness, brotherhood and
social unity towards own country irrespective of their
individual difference with regards to religion, region, , race,
culture, caste etc.
Definition of national integration
• Etizimi defines that national integration is an emotional attachment to
nation.
• Robert C. Angel defines that national integration is a process and an end
product.
• H.A. Gani said that national integration is a socio-psychological and
educational progress through which a feeling of unity and harmony
develops in the hearts of the people and a sense of common citizenship or
feeling of loyalty to the nation is fostered among them.
• In conclusion , it is a process of unity.
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Characteristic of national integration.
• Certain geographical region, identity and characteristics.
• Evolution , history and uniqueness.
• Independency and sense of nationalism.
• Political organization and political legitimacy.
• Unified and organized psychology.
• Co-existence.
• Commitment for prosperity.
• It can contribute to increase national income, industrial
development, infrastructure development, utilization of
resources, technological development.
• It helps to built nation by all round progress.
• It protects fundamental rights and freedom of people.
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Role of national integration
• It makes nation strong and organized.
• It promotes peace and co-existence.
• It helps to defeat stronger enemy.
• It protect sovereignty .
• It helps to unite people of different community, caste, religion, race , culture
etc.
• It leads to national development and promote democracy.
• It helps to develop the feeling of nationality .
• It helps to improve proper infrastructure.
• It helps to bring prosperity by increasing national income.
• It contributes different sectors of development.
Challenges of national integration
• Inequality
• Economic disparity.
• Regional political party and activities.
• Conflict among the people in the name of religion, ethnic group…
• Policies of nation.
• Communalism , provincialism.
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Role of ethnic group in nation building What must be done to maintain national
process integration?
• National politics. • Equal opportunities should be provide to all.
• Socio- cultural development. • Should create the feeling of nationality among the people.
• Economic development. • Should create an environment to respect each-other.
• National security. • Different forms of discrimination, inequality should be end.
• Protection of national boundary.
• Feeling of cooperation and responsibility must be developed.
• Infrastructure development.
• Government should be transparent, accountable and responsible to the
• Over all development. citizens.
• Peace and prosperity.
• Political parties and different social organization should play active role to
• Technological development and resource mobilization maintain national unity.

• Should develop sensitivity among the people towards mother land.

• Different cultural identity should be respect and provide equal
opportunity for development.
• Economic opportunity should be provide with out any discrimination .
• Geographical boundary should be protect by mobilization of security force
and local people.
• Should develop infrastructure.
• Should minimized conflict by providing fundamental human rights to the
people.
• Should make people friendly political and socio-economical policy.
• Communalism , provincialism should be address by making strict law.
Some main festivals in Nepal
• Lhosar :-Lhosar is one of the very popular festivals of Himalayan region and
it is celebrated by Sherpa, Gurung and Tamang. In Tibetan language, Lhosar
means New Year. There are Three types of Lhosar celebrated in Nepal.
• Tamu/ Tola Lhosar.
• Sonam Lhosar
• Gyalbu/ Gyalpo Lhosar
• Gurung celebrate Tamu Lhosat around 15th of Poush and Sonam Lhosar is
celebrated by Tamang at the beginning of Magh. Gyalbu Lhosar is known as
the king of Lhosar and celebrated by Sherpa after 15th of Falgun.
• In this festivals they cleaned their houses, road, Gumba , Monastery and
other public places. The whole Gumba are filled by colourful flages and
there are prayer, procession and mass gathering in Gumbas’ and the
settlement . Feasting, dancing, singing etc. are organized in Lhosar and
every body wished to well for all.

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• Chhat :- Chhat is most important festival of Mithila Region of Terai.

This festival is celebrated in the month of Kartik or after the Six days
of Laxmi Pooja. It is celebrated for THREE days.
• It is the festival of fasting and worshiping. In this festival people
worship setting and rising sun with different pure food items near the
river or pound . They wish for happiness, peace, good health,
progress for family members and community.
Eid-Ul- Fitra :- Eid is the main festival if Islam religion . It is celebrated
by Muslim in the month of Ramjan of Islamic calendar . It is celebrated
after One month long fasting (Roja) in the name of Allaha.
Fasting , Namaj reading, preparation of good food, Donation to the
poor (Jacket) get together and exchange of wishes in the name of
Allaha are main activities of this festival. Muslim celebrated it in
Eidgaha, Masque and settlement.

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