1.

a) Define the following terms: i) Adventitious roots

AMS Adventitious roots are specialized roots that develop from a non-root
tissue part of the plant, such as the stem, branch or leaves, rather than the
root. Adventitious roots are formed either as part of the plant's normal
development or in response to stressful conditions. These roots are
ecologically important as they allow plants to adapt to environmental stress,
and humans utilize adventitious roots for food production and the vegetative
propagation of plants

ii) Cuticle

Ans: A plant cuticle is a protecting film covering the epidermis of leaves,

young shoots and other aerial plant organs without periderm. It consists of
lipid and hydrocarbon polymers impregnated with wax, and is synthesized
exclusively by the epidermal cells.
iii) Heterophylly

ans: In some cases, heterophylly is thought to be an adaptive mechanism

that allows plants to optimally respond to environmental heterogeneity.
Recently, many research studies have investigated the occurrence of
heterophylly in a wide variety of plants. Several studies have suggested that
heterophylly in plants is regulated by phytohormones.

iv) Tapetum

ans: The tapetum is a specialised layer of nutritive cells found within the
anther, of flowering plants, where it is located between the sporangenous
tissue and the anther wall. Tapetum is important for the nutrition and
development of pollen grains, as well as a source of precursors for the pollen
coat. The cells are usually bigger and normally have more than one nucleus
per cell. As the sporogenous cells undergo mitosis, the nuclei of tapetal cells
also divide.

v) Pollinia

ans:
A pollinium (plural pollinia) is a coherent mass of pollen grains in a plant
that are the product of only one anther, but are transferred, during
pollination, as a single unit. This is regularly seen in plants such as orchids
and many species of milkweeds (Asclepiadoideae). Usage of the term differs:
in some orchids two masses of pollen are well attached to one another, but
in other orchids there are two halves (with two separate viscidia) each of
which is sometimes referred to as a pollinium.

b) State whether these statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:

i) Funiculus is the stalk by which seeds are attached to a fruit wall.TRUE

ii) Collenchyma is composed of living cells with lignified cell wall. FALSE

iii) Outer and inner tangential walls of the endothecial cells help in
dehiscence of anther.TRUE

iv) In dichogamy, the androecium and gynoecium mature at the same time.
FALSE

v) In most of the angiosperms the division of the zygote is transverse

resulting in formation of a small apical cell and a large basal cell.TRUE

2. a) Explain different types of meristems found in plants with the help

of a well labelled diagram.

Ans:

Apical meristems. At the tip, or apex, of each stem and root is an apical
meristem. The cell division at the apical meristem contributes to the
lengthening of these plant parts. This lengthening is termed primary growth,
and it takes place in tender, young tissues. A new seedling reaching for the
sky, roots penetrating in search of water--these are examples of primary
growth.

Shoot Apical Meristem

Lateral meristems. If apical meristems—and primary growth—were the only
means by which a plant grew in size, however, we'd have very skinny trees!
But of course in addition to lengthening, some roots and shoots eventually
also increase in girth and become woody. This is termed secondary growth,
and it takes place in lateral meristems. There are two types of lateral
meristems in woody plants; both are found in cylinder-shaped regions below
the bark.
The vascular cambium lies between the wood and the inner bark. During
secondary growth, new xylem cells formed by the vascular cambium become
thick-walled and sturdy, and the living contents die. As the branch or trunk
enlarges in circumference, these cells make up the bulk of the stem tissue,
forming the secondary xylem, or what we commonly call wood. Thinner-
walled phloem cells divide outward, surrounding the wood; this forms the
inner bark.

The cork cambium lies closer to the surface, and produces the outer bark.

If you take a freshly-cut branch or log and peel away the bark right down to
the wood, you’ll feel a moist, slippery surface on both the wood and the
inner bark. This is the region of the vascular cambium.

The inner bark consists of living cells.

The outer bark is made up of dead cells.

Cork is a secondary tissue that replaces the epidermis in woody stems

Intercalary meristems. In most plants the primary meristem is located at the

tip of the growing shoot—we're all familiar with the rapid growth of a
morning glory vine, for example. But consider your lawn. If you cut off the
meristem every time you mow the lawn, how does the plant regrow so
quickly?

In prairie habitats, plants are continually exposed to grazing by deer, bison,

and other herbivores. Plants with apical meristems would repeatedly lose
their growing points and therefore their primary means of regenerating.
Grasses, however, adapted by locating their meristem tissue at nodes along
the stem, just above ground level. Grasses continue to grow from these
intercalary meristems and can repeatedly renew themselves after grazing by
animals.

b) Enumerate the major features of Tunica Corpus Theory of shoot

apical organization.

Ans: Schmidt in 1924 postulated tunica- corpus theory on the basis of studies
of shoot apices of angiosperm. This theory is concerned with planes of cell
division in the apex. In contrast to apical cell theory and histogen theory
tunica-corpus theory is applicable only to shoot apex and not to root.
Schmidt distinguishes two tissue zones in the shoot apex and termed them
as tunica and corpus.

Majority of angiosperm shoot apex exhibits tunica consisting of two layers of

cells and corpus (Fig. 7.9A). Researchers designate the layers as L1, L2 and L3
to denote respectively outer layer of tunica, inner layer of tunica and corpus.
Plasmodesmata exist between the cells of tunica and corpus. It is thought
that plasmodesma controls the gene expression that leads to the formation
of protoderm, ground meristem and provascular tissue.

i. Tunica:

Tunica is the peripheral tissue zone of shoot apex. It consists of one or more
peripheral layers of cells. Dicotyledons exhibit one to five layers of cells in
tunica; two layers of cells are represented by largest number of species.
Monocotyledons have one to four layers of cells in tunica; one and two
layered tunica predominates in it. One single layered tunica is termed as
monostratose. Many layered tunica is termed as multistratose. Xanthorrhoea
media shows eighteen layered tunica.

ii. Corpus:

Corpus is the inner tissue zone of shoot apex. It consists of cells that are
several cell layers deep. Tunica overarches corpus. Meristematic tissues
composing this zone are larger than tunica. The initial cells of corpus occur
below the tunica. They are orderly arranged in contrast to haphazardly
arranged cells in the mass of corpus. So the initials of corpus are difficult to
differentiate from the initials of tunica.

Merits of tunica-corpus theory:

i. It deals with one thing, i.e. planes of cell division. As a result the
description of meristem becomes precise.

ii. It has topographical value in the studies of development of different tissue

system in plants.

iii. The destiny of derivatives of corpus is not predetermined.

iv. The derivatives of the zones are not rigid like histogen theory.

v. It explains clearly the growth pattern in the shoot apex of angiosperm.

vi. It enables to understand the development of leaves as they arise close to

apex.

vii. The specific variation in the number of tunica layers may be of

taxonomic significance, e.g. grasses.

3. a) Enlist the major characteristic features of halophytes

Ams: 1. Habit:

A great majority of halophytes in the tropical and subtropical regions are

shrubs, but a few of them are herbaceous, for example. Acanthus ilicifolius.
In temperate zones, halophytic vegetation is purely herbaceous. The shrubs
are generally dome-shaped in appearance because of their cymose
branching.

External morphology:

(a) Roots:

(i) Halophytes develop many shallow normal roots. In halophytes, in

addition to normal roots, many stilt or prop roots develop from the aerial
branches of stem for efficient anchorage in muddy or loose sandy soil.

(b) Stem:

Stems in several halophytes develop succulence. Salicornia herbacia and

Suaeda maritima may be quoted as familiar examples for it. According to
Arnold (1955) the succulence depends on the ratio of absorbed to free ions in
the plant cells rather than absolute amounts of sodium chloride or sulphate
present. Succulence is induced only after the accumulation of free ions in an
organ increases above a critical level.

(c) Leaves:

The leaves in most of the halophytes are thick, entire, succulent, generally
small-sized, and are often glassy in appearance. Some species are aphyllous.
Stems and leaves of coastal aero halophytes show additional mode of
adaptation to their habitats. Their surfaces are densely covered with
trichomes. Leaves of submerged marine halophytes are thin and have very
poorly developed vascular system and frequently green epidermis. They are
adapted to absorb water and nutrients from the medium directly.

(d) Fruits, Seeds and their dispersal:

The fruits and seeds are generally light in weight. Fruit walls have a number
of air chambers and the fruits, seeds, and seedlings which can float on the
water surface for pretty long time are dispersed to distant places by water
current. Mangrove vegetation’s of tropical sea-shores from Australia to East
Africa include approximately the same species of plants. Similarly, the
mangroves of West Asia show considerable resemblances with those of East
Asia and East Africa.

e) Viviparous mode of seed germination:

Halophytes or mangrove plants growing in the tidal marshes are met with
the phenomenon of ‘vivipary’ which is defined as the germination of seeds
while the fruits are still attached to mother plants.

3. Anatomical Features:

The appearance and structures which characterize certain groups of plants

sum up to a great extent their ecological and physiological means of
adaptation. Halophytes are no exception to this rule because of specific land
typical structural characteristics which make them distinguishable from
other groups of plants.

These are:

1. Large cells and I small intercellular spaces,

2. High elasticity of the cell walls,

3. Extensive development of water storing tissues,

4. Smaller relative surface area (surface/volume ratio),

5. Small and fewer stomata, and

6. Low chlorophyll content.

4. Physiological Adaptations in Halophytes:

Morphology and anatomy of the halophytes clearly show xeromorphic

features in them. Now, these plants are growing in an environment where
water is available to the plants in abundance then why xeromorphy develops
in halophytes? Previously physiological drought was believed to be the main
cause of developments of xeromorphy in halophytes, but recent
physiological experiments on these plants have proved that xeromorphism in
these plants is, apparently, an example of purposeless adaptation.
Physiological experiments make it clear that the halophytes do not
experience difficulties, whatsoever, in absorbing too saline water.

b) List various types of simple and complex tissues. Describe complex

tissues with suitable diagrams.

Ans:

Types of simple tissues:

Simple tissues are of three types, namely parenchyma, collenchyma and

sclerenchyma.

Permanent tissues are tissues wherein the growth process has been ceased.
These issues originate from both the primary and the secondary
meristematic tissues and possess a definite shape and organization.
However, they lack the potential to divide.

Based on their constituent cell, Permanent tissues can be classified into two
major types:

Simple tissue – parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma

Complex tissue – xylem and phloem

Parenchyma

They are living cells and walled, soft in nature due to the presence of thin-
walled cells.

Collenchyma

These are characterized by uneven thick-walled living cells. This unevenness

in the thickening of the cell walls imparts partially hard giving mechanical
support derived essentially from the elongated cells of the ground
meristems, procambium sometimes.

Sclerenchyma

They have cells with thickened lignified walls, providing them strength and
making them waterproof.

TYPES OF COMPLEX TISSUES:

Complex tissue is composed of more than one kind of cells. They are two
types, namely Xylem tissue and Phloem tissue.

i. Xylem tissue: Xylem tissue consists of four types of cells,

namely: Tracheids, Vessels or Trachaea, Xylem fibre and Xylem
Parenchyma.

Tracheids: Cells are dead, long withtransverse ends, containing large

vacuole. Cell walls are hard, strong. and lignified. Their main functions are to
gIve mechanical strength and to supply water and dissolved minerals from
root to the leaves.

Vessels or Trachaea: Cells are broadand short, placed end to end to form a
continuous hollow tube. Water and waterdissolved minerals are conducted
from root to leaf by these cells.
Xylem fibre: These are sclerenchymatouscells. Their main function is to give
mechanical strength to the plant.

Xylem parenchyma: These areparenchymatous .cells. Functions of these cells

are storage and conduction of food materials.

Functions of xylem tissue: Theirfunctions are to give mechanical strength to

the plant body, conduction of water, minerals and food materials and
storage of food.

ii. Phloem tissue: Phloem tissue consists offour types of cells, namely: sieve
tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma.
Sieve tube: These are elongate hollowcells placed end-to-end forming.

Division of Labour in Multicellular Plants a long tube. The partition walls

between two adjacent sieve cells are perforated and known as sieve plate. In
m4;iture sieve tube there is. no nucleus in the cell. Conduction of food,
prepared in the leaves is its main function.

Companion cells: These are parenchymatous, narrow, elongated cells, andare

closely associated with the sieve tube. They have dense cytoplasm and a
large nucleus. Conduction with the sieve tube is done through the pores
present on the walls of these cells. They help the sieve tubes in conduction of
food materials.

Phloem fibre: These are Sclerenchymatous cells. They are also known as bast
fibre. Its function is to give mechanical strength.
Phloem parenchyma: These are parenchymatous cells. They help in
storageand conduction of food materials.

4. Describe the secondary growth in dicot stem with the help of a well
labelled diagram.

ANS: Secondary growth

Meristem is responsible for the development of primary plant body.

Primary growth increases length of the plant as well as lateral appendages.

However, secondary Grier increases thickness or girth of the plant by the

formation of secondary tissues.

There secondary tissues are formed by the two types of lateral meristem i.e.
vascular cambium and cork cambium (phellogen).

Secondary growth occurs in stem and root of dicots and gymnosperms.

However, it is absent in stem and root of monocot and completely absent in

leaf.

A process of formation of secondary tissues due to activity of vascular

cambium and cork cambium for increasing thickness or girth or diameter of
plant is termed as secondary growth.

On the basis of the activities of vascular cambium and cork cambium, the
process of secondary growth can be discussed under the following headings:

Activity of the vascular cambium

Activity of the cork-cambium

Secondary growth in stellar region due to activity of the vascular cambium

i. Formation of cambium ring:

In vascular bundles of a dicot stem, the cambium is present in between the

xylem and phloem. It is known as intrafascicular cambium.

During secondary growth, some cells of medullary rays become active and
show meristematic activity which form a strip of cambium in between
vascular bundles called inter-fascicular cambium.

Both the intra-fascicular and inter-fascicular cambium unite together to

form a complete ring called the cambium ring.

The activity of the cambium ring gives rise to secondary growth.

ii. Formation of the secondary tissues:

The cambium ring acts as a meristem which divides.

The cambium layer consists of a single layer of cells.

These cells divide in a direction parallel with epidermis.

A cambial cell divides into two daughter cells, one of which remains
meristematic and other differentiates into secondary vascular tissue.

The cell formed towards inner side develops into secondary xylem.

Likewise, the cell formed towards outer side develops into secondary
phloem.

Normally, more secondary xylem cells are formed towards the center due to
which cambium ring moves towards the periphery.

Due to the formation of secondary xylem and secondary phloem, the

primary xylem and primary phloem which were initially closed, moves
towards inner and outer side respectively.

As a result, they become separated apart.

The layers of secondary tissues gradually added to the inner and outer side of
the cambium continuously throughout the life of the plant.

iii. Formation of secondary medullary rays:

Certain cells of the cambium instead of forming secondary xylem and

phloem for some narrow bands of living parenchyma cells.

These form two or three layers of thick radical rows of cells passing through
the secondary xylem and secondary phloem and are called secondary
medullary rays.

These provide the radial conduction of food from the phloem, and water and
mineral salts from the xylem.

iv. Formation of annual rings:

The activity of cambium is affected by variations in temperature.

In moderate climate, the cambium becomes more active in the spring and
forms greater number of vessels with wider cavities, whereas in winter it
becomes less active and forms narrower and smaller vessels.

The wood formed in the spring is known as spring wood or early wood and
that formed in the dry summer or cold winter is autumn wood or late wood.

These two kinds of wood appear together as a concentric ring known as the
annual ring or growth ring, as seen in transection of the stem and successive
annual rings are formed year after year by the activity of the cambium.

The growth of the successive years appears in the form of concentric or

annual rings, each annual ring representing the one year’s growth.

The age of the plant thus, can be approximately determined by counting the
number of annual rings.

v. Formation of heart wood and sap wood:

In the old trees, where sufficient amount of secondary growth has taken
place, the secondary wood of inner side lose the power of conduction.

Their cells get filled with tannins, resins, gums, essential oils which makes
the plant part hard and darker called the heart wood or duramen.

The heart wood ceases the function of conducting tissue and simply provides
mechanical support to the stem.

However, the outer region of secondary wood, which consists of younger

living xylem cells, remains yellow in colour called the sap wood or laburnum.

It functions as the conducting tissue and also as the food storage tissue.

Secondary growth in extra stellar region due to activity of cork-cambium:

The marked increase in diameter or thickness of stem brought about by the

secondary thickening exerts a great pressure on the outer tissues.
This results in the rupture of the cortex and epidermis, the outer cortical
cells become meristematic and begins to divide. This is known as cork
cambium or phellogen.

The cork cambium divides to form secondary tissue on both the sides i.e.
internal and external but its activity is more on the outer side than on the
inner side.

The cells formed on the outer side constitutes the phellem or cork and those
on the inner side form secondary cortex or phelloderm.

The phellogen, phellem and phelloderm together are called periderm.

5. a) List various types of ovules and describe them with outline

diagrams.

ANS: There are six types of ovules.

1. Orthotropous or atropous ovule (ortho-straight, tropous - turn)

The body of the ovule is erect or straight. The hilum, chalaza and the
micropyle lie in a straight line e.g. Polygonum.
2. Anatropous ovule (ana - backward or up, tropous - turn)

The body of the ovule becomes completely inverted during the development
so that the micropyle lies very close to the hilum (eg) Gamopetalae
members.

3. Hemi-anatropous or hemitropous ovule

The body of the ovule is placed transversely at right angles to the funicle.
The micropyle and chalaza lie in one straight line e.g.Ranunculus.

4. Campylotropous ovule (kampylos - curved)

The body of the ovule is curved or bent round so that the micropyle and
chalaza do not lie in the same straight line. e.g.Leguminosae.

5. Amphitropous ovule

The curvature of the ovule is very much pronounced and the embryosac also
becomes curved e.g. Allismaceae, and Butomaceae.

6. Circinotropous ovule
The nucellus and the axis are in the same line in the beginning but due to
rapid growth on one side, the ovule becomes anatropous. The curvature
continues further and the micropyle again points upwards (e.g.) Opuntia.

b) Define apomixis and list its types. Discuss various causes of

apomixis and its importance.

ANS:
In botany, apomixis is asexual reproduction without fertilization. Its
etymology is Greek for "away from" + "mixing". This definition notably does
not mention meiosis. Thus "normal asexual reproduction" of plants, such as
propagation from cuttings or leaves, has never been considered to be
apomixis, but replacement of the seed by a plantlet or replacement of the
flower by bulbils were categorized as types of apomixes

Apomixis types:

Types of
Classification Description
apomixis

Cell involved
Parthenogenesis The embryo develops from an egg cell
apomixis

The embryo originates from synergids or

antipodal cells.
Apogamy
It develops from the normal embryo sac
apomixis
cells.

It may be haploid or diploid.

 The unreduced embryo sac is derived
from a megaspore mother cell by aborted
meiotic division or a direct mitotic
division.

The major types of diplospory apomixis

are Taraxacum, Ixeris, and Antennaria.

In Taraxacum, the meiotic prophase starts

but then the phase is aborted which
Diplospory results in two unreduced dyads one of
which gives rise to the embryo sac by
mitosis

In Ixeris, two further mitotic division of

the nuclei give rise to an octa-nucleate
embryo sac which follows an equational
division following meiotic prophase.

In Antennaria, a total of three mitotic

divisions form the megagametophyte.

Apospory The nuclear cells that give rise to

apomictic embryo sacs which are known
 as aposporos initials are distinct from the
ameiotic megasporocyte.

The aposporos initial cells may

differentiate close to the ameiotic
megasporocyte and transform into an
apomictic embryo sac.

After they differentiate then enter mitotic

cell division to produce an embryo sac.
Some ovules can contain several embryo
sacs and, depending on the plant species,
the form of the embryo sac may be -
different from that seen in the sexual
reproduction process.

The initiation apospory embryo sac can

occur alongside a sexual one or it can
inhibit sexual embryo sac formation.

It is also known as sporophytic apomixis.

Adventive In this type of apomixis, there may be a
embryonic megagametophyte in the ovule. However,
the embryos do not rise from the cells of
the gametophyte. They rise from the cells
 of nucellus.

It can be observed in species of Garcinia,

Mangifera indica, etc

It is also called gametophytic apomixis

The megagametophyte has the same
Recurrent number of chromosomes as the mother
Occurrence
apomixis plant. This is due to incomplete meiosis.
It generally arises from an archesporial
cell or some other part of the nucellus.

The embryo sac consists of haploid cells

Non-recurrent
and the embryo develops from a haploid
apomixis
cell.

Obligate The reproduction takes place by

Frequency
apomixis apomictic means

Facultative The process of reproduction is carried out

apomixis by both apomictic and sexual means.

CAUSES OF APOMIXIS:

Apomictic species are generally hybrids or polyploids, as a consequence,

there is irregular meiosis. Apomixis appears to be controlled by a set of
genes. The trait is genetically inherited. The genes controlling sexual
reproduction are non-allelic to those of apomixis. Accordingly, any line of
dissent carrying the genes for apomixis will produce both types, apomicts as
well as sexually reproducing plants. It has been proposed that apomixis is
governed by recessive genes. The three genes (AABBCC) determine the
breeding behavior.
In homozygous condition a forms unreduced eggs, b prevents fertilization,
and c promotes egg development without fertilization. Thus, aaBBCC will
have unreduced egg but cannot develop without fertilization, AAbbCC
produces reduced egg but no embryo development take place because
fertilization is prevented, and AABBcc will show normal sexual behaviour
because the gene C has no effect in the presence of A and B. As a
consequence of apomixis, genetic variability in such species is frozen as they
have the same genotypes as parents. However, facultative apomicts have an
advantage as they have retained both kinds of reproduction.

Applications of Apomixis

Apomixis has many applications in the produce sector. Some of them are
explained below:

Development of Pure Lines: Apomixis is a means of rapid production of pure

lines in plants. Haploid apogamy and parthenogenesis give rise to haploid
plants which after being treated by colchicine treatment can produce diploid
pure lines. These pure lines can be used in the production of high yielding
cultivars and hybrids.

Maintenance of Purity: Obligate apomixis breeds retain the characteristics of

the mother plant which are useful in maintaining genetic purity from
generation to generation. It can maintain a genotype for several generations.

Conservation of Heterosis: Obligate recurrent apomixis is useful in

conserving hybrid vigor for numerous generations. As apomixis does not
permit segregation, heterosis can be easily conserved.

Easy Hybrid Seed Production: Apomixis offers a simple way of hybrid seed
production. These seeds are automatically produced by apomictic means and
there is no need for crossing. Once a hybrid is developed using an apomictic
line as one of the parents, the hybrid seed production will occur
automatically. It is also more affordable than conventional methods of
hybrid seed production.
Advantages of Apomixis:

Apomictic plants conserve the genetic structure of their carriers which

enables them to maintain heterozygote advantages for many generations. It
offers a great advantage in plant breeding where genetic uniformity is
maintained for both homo and heterozygosity. The advantages of apomixis
are:

Rapid multiplication of genetically uniform progenies without the risk of

segregation.

Hybrid vigor or heterosis can be fixed permanently in crop plants

If maternal characteristics are present in resultant progenies then it can be

exploited from generation to generation.

The significance of Apomixis

The significance or the importance of apomixis in the plant breeding

industry is massive. It is a method that develops seeds without fertilization.
It can be referred to as a means of asexual reproduction which mimics sexual
reproduction. It helps in the production of hybrid seeds and is cost-efficient
when it comes to large-scale production. There is an increase in yield as
well. Also, since there is no cross-fertilization, apomixis helps in preserving
the good characteristics of a crop plant.

6. Describe syngamy and triple fusion in angiosperms with the help of

a well labelled diagram. Enlist the major functions of endosperm in
plants.

ANS:

What is Syngamy?

An important characteristic of angiosperms is double fertilization, where two

nuclei (of sperm) from each of the pollen tubes go on to fertilise two other
cells that belong to the ovary. A diploid zygote is formed when one of the
sperm cells fertilizes one of the egg cells. An embryo now develops from this
diploid zygote. The fusion of the cells in such a scenario is called syngamy. It
can be noted that syngamy is also referred to as true fusion and generative
fertilisation.

Types of syngamy

Syngamy is of two kinds on the basis of the source of fusion gametes, which
are

Self-fertilization or Endogamy: The includes the fusion of two forms of

gametes originating from the same parent for example, Taenia. It is a
process is very uncommon.

Cross-fertilization or Exogamy: When two fusing gametes for example in

human, frog, cockroach, etc. are derived from separate parents. It is more
general.

There are three types of syngamy and they are:

Isogamy: This occurs when the gametes that fuse are similar. An advanced
system of recognition is used so as to avoid self-fertilization. Surface proteins
such as cells of immune system help in recognizing the different types of
genotypes.

Heterogamy: This happens when the gametes are of two different sizes.
Based on the division of labor, the difference between the two gametes are
done. Usually the female is larger while the male is smaller. Also, the
number of male gametes is more so that there is an increase in the
competition and makes fertilization likely.

Oogamy: This takes place when the mobility of the gametes are different.
Oocyte is the non-motile female and spermatozoon is the flagellate male. In
most of the cases, spermatozoon is the only mobile gamete. Spermatozoa
and spermatia are known as sperms.
Difference between Syngamy and Triple Fusion

Syngamy Triple fusion

Definition

The fusion of male and female The fusion of the sperm cell with
gametes during the fertilization is the two polar nuclei during the
known as syngamy double fertilization is known as
triple fusion

Development

During syngamy, zygote is During triple fusion, endosperm

produced which forms the embryo cells are produced which develops
into endosperm

Result
Diploid is the end result of Triploid is the end result of triple
syngamy fusion

major functions of endosperm in plants:

Endosperm is present in the seeds of most of the angiosperms. It provides

nourishment to the growing embryo. Endosperm is replaced by fleshy
cotyledons in dicotyledons. In monocotyledons, endosperm persists in the
mature seeds too and stores the food. Endosperm tissue is rich in
carbohydrates and also contains proteins and lipids.

Endosperm is important for the growth of an embryo and stores the food
reserve

They supply nutrients and provide protection to the developing embryo

Endospermic tissues have shown to regulate gene expression and seed

germination

Endosperm induces signals according to environmental conditions and

regulates embryonic growth

The endosperm contains cytokinin, which regulates cellular differentiation

It may induce abortion of seeds from the genetically mismatched cross

7. a) Describe the structure of a mature embryo sac with the help of a

well labelled diagram.

ANS: structure of a mature embryo sac:

b) Trichomes play important role in plants, Justify the statement.

ANS: Plants have evolved many defense mechanisms to pro tect against
different abiotic and biotic stresses. The morphology and density of
trichomes influence several aspects of plant physiology and ecology by
mediating the interactions between the plant and its environment .

Trichomes, along with the stomata, cutin and wax on the epidermis,
performed various protective functions through synthesizing, storing and
secreting many im portant substances. The cotton petal trichomes maintain
the shape of the buds and ensure the produc tion of seeds. In addition,
trichomes protect plants from herbivores, insects and pathogens by secreting
repellents, alkaloids and toxic substances. Kim et al. (2011) examined the
relationship between pepper trichomes and pepper mottle virus (PepMov)
resistance and showed that the resistance to PepMoV-SNU1 strain is
inherited by cross combinations among pepper culti vars CM334,
Chilsungcho and ECW123R. In rice, two TRICHOME BIREFRINGENCE
(TBR)-like proteins play an essential role in the resistance to leaf spot
dis ease. Trichomes are also important in the response to abi otic stress.
The presence of trichomes increases the thickness of the epidermis, and the
content of long chain fatty acids is significantly higher than that inother
epidermal cells, which is helpful to reduce evaporation and regulate
temperature. In Brazil’s highaltitude rocky areas, the plants of Croton
tiglium and Vriesea effectively absorb moisture and nutrients from the
atmosphere through trichomes to improve water and fertilizer utilization.
The high-density multi branched Acanthophyllum squarrosum trichomes
not only have high resistance to sand burial, but also reduce mechanical
damage by wind and sand [30]. In addition, the trichomes of an aquatic
plant, Salvinia molesta, play a hydrophobic role in maintaining normal
respiration. Trichomes also function in signal transmission. The cell wall of
Arabidopsis trichomes gradually thins from the top to bottom, and this
change makes the base of the trichomes extremely sensitive to external
stimuli. The stimulation is transmitted to cells around the base of trichomes
through changes in Ca 2+ content and pH, thereby regulating the synthesis
of defensive substances.

8. Differentiate between Intraspecific and Incompatibility

Interspecific incompatibility. List the methods to overcome
incompatibility and discuss the significance of incompatibility.

Ans: Intraspecific and Incompatibility Interspecific incompatibility:

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71
29
85
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PD
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methods to overcome incompatibility:

Method # 1. Bud Pollination:

It is the most successful method in both the gametophytic and sporophytic

systems. The most advantageous stage for the buds to overcome self-
incompatibility is two to seven days before anthesis. In Petunia axillares
inhibition is nullified if the buds are self- pollinated two days before
anthesis.

In the species at the bud stage the stigma lacks exudates, which appear only
during anthesis. Thus if the stigma is self-pollinated at bud stage when the
factor responsible for the exudates has not appeared, the pollen tubes will
grow normally and effect fertilization.

Method # 2. Mixed Pollination:

In this method the stigma is camouflaged from recognizing the incompatible

pollen. This is achieved by pollinating the stigma with a mixture of
chemically or irradiatedly treated compatible pollen, and live incompatible
pollen.

It is presumed that when a stigma is pollinated with compatible pollen along

with incompatible pollen, there the proteins released from the former facade
the inhibition reaction at the surface of the stigma. Self-incompatibility has
been overcome by using compatible pollen in Cosmos (sporophytic self-
incompatibility) and Petunia hybrida (gametophytic self- incompatibility).

Method # 3. Deferred Pollination:

It has been observed that if pollination is deferred for few days, incompatible
pollen tubes pass through the style. In Brassica and Lilium delayed
pollination has been successful in overcoming self-incompatibility.

Method # 4. Test Tube Pollination:

Such a method to overcome self- incompatibility was first reported by Kanta

(1962) in Papaver somniferum and later success also achieved in Argemone
mexicana, and Eschscholzia californica of Papaveraceae and Nicotiana
rustica and N. tabacum of Solanaceae.

In this method, stigmatic, stylar, and ovary wall tissues are completely
removed from the path of pollen tube. The bare ovules are directly dusted
with pollen grains. Successfully pollinated ovules are cultured in a nutrient
medium that supports germination as well as development of fertilized
ovules into seeds.

Method # 5. Stub Pollination:

Those incompatibilities that are restricted to the stigma or to the length of

the style that is larger than the maximum length attained by the pollen tubes
have been overcome by removing the stigma and part of the style. The
stigmatic surface of Ipomoea trichocarpa is the primary site of
incompatibility and if the stigmatic lobe is removed and the cut surface
pollinated then the pollen tube grows uninhibited in to the ovule.

Similarly it has been seen that crosses between Nicotiana tabacum x N.

rustica and N. tabacum x N. debney fail, whereas their mutual crosses are
successful. It is for the reason that in N. tabacum the style is longer than in
the other two species, as a consequence the pollen tube fail to reach the
ovule.

Following the removal of a large part of the style from N. tabacum and
smearing the cut surface with agar-sucrose medium to function as a
substrate followed by pollination with the pollen of N. rustica or N. debney,
it was observed that in majority of the cases fertilization was successful.

Method # 6. Intra-Ovarian Pollination:

In cases where the zone of incompatibility lies in the stigma or in the style,
there pollen suspension can be applied directly in the ovary to overcome
incompatibility. Viable seeds have been obtained by this method in,
Argemone mexicana and A. ochroleuca by Kanta and Maheshwari (1963).
In this method the ovary is at first surface sterilized, followed by injecting
the aqueous pollen suspension (with or without specific substance for
germination) by a hypodermic syringe followed by sealing the holes with
petroleum jelly. The introduced pollen grains germinate and achieve
fertilization. The method has also been successful in other members of
Papaveraceae, like Papaver rhoeas and P. somniferum.

Method # 7. In Vitro Pollination:

This method was developed by Kanta (1962) in Papaver somniferum to

overcome prezygotic barriers to fertility. The exposed ovules, achieved by
removing the stigmatic, stylar, and ovary wall tissues were directly dusted
with pollen grains and then cultured in a suitable nutrient medium that
supported both the germination of pollen as well as the development of
fertilized ovules. A better result is obtained by culturing the ovules within
the intact placental tissue as such the technique is also termed as placental
pollination.

significance of incompatibility:

Nature regulates a balance between inbreeding and outbreeding by

enforcing incompatibility. Continued selfing of the plants causes
homozygosity whereas (Fig. 23-8) occurrence of interspecific incompatibility
causes reproductive isolation. In this manner a bottle-neck is created for the
free flow of genes between the populations of a species.

Sexual incompatibility may be a serious drawback for further plant

improvement programme. Homozygous individuals have low survival value
but are extremely useful to conduct basic genetic studies and undertake
plant breeding programme.
Homozygous individuals can be obtained in several ways. The conventional
methods were laborious and time consuming whereas pollen and protoplast
culture technique are the chief methods to obtain haploids.

Interspecific incompatibility also precludes wide hybridization and thus

prevents formation of new varieties having desirable characters. For the past
several years different methods have been evolved, tested and employed to
overcome intra- and interspecific incompatibility.

9. Differentiate between:

a) storied and non-storied cambium

ans: The initials of the axial system are elongated and pointed. They are
usually called fusiform (spindle-shaped) initials. They are relatively short in
Robinia. In tangential sections the fusiform cambial cells occur in horizontal
tiers. Cambium thus organized is referred to as storied or stratified. The
contrasting type would be non-storied or non-stratified cambium. In the
non-storied cambium the fusiform initials overlap one another and do not
appear in horizontal tiers in tangential views

b) amoeboid and glandular tapetum

ans: 1. Amoeboid or Invasive or Periplasmodial Tapetum:

This type of tapetum is seen in Alisma, Butomus, Tradescantia, Typha, etc.

where, the tapetal cells fuse among themselves to form a tapetal
periplasmodium. The protoplast of the fused tapetal cells move into the
locule, where they surround the pollen mother cells or the developing pollen
grains. This protoplast movement into the locule may take place during
meiotic prophase or may be delayed until the tetrad stage.

In Tradescantia during pre-meiotic stage of sporogenous cell development

the tapetal cells become progressively more vacuolated, and vesicles possibly
derived from dictyosomes, begin to be discharged from the cell. These
vesicles contain enzymes which speed up the breakdown and rapid
dissolution of the tapetal cell wall. At about the same time the pollen mother
cells are undergoing meiotic divisions to form the microspores.

2. Glandular or Secretory Tapetum:

It is the most common type of tapetum in angiosperms, where the cells

remain in their original position and later break down progressively. Among
the substance released from the degenerating tapetum are pollenkitt and
tryphine.

The details of event in the secretory tapetal cells of Helleborus foetidus from
the premeiotic stage to the pollen maturation have been described in detail
by Echlin and Godwin (1968) which are briefly stated below:

i. The cell wall is relatively thin, being composed of middle lamella and a
primary wall with low content of cellulose. The cytoplasm possesses
mitochondria, plastids, number of pro-Ubisch bodies and dictyosomes.

c) self and cross pollination

ans:

Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination

Transfer pollen grains from the Transfer pollen grains from

anther to the stigma of the same the anther to the stigma of a
flower. different flower.

This process can take place in the This process can take place
same flower or a different flower between two flowers present
of the same plant. on different plants.
It occurs in the flowers which are It occurs between flowers
genetically identical. which are genetically
different.

Few species that exhibit self- Few species that exhibit

pollination – Paphiopedilum cross-pollination – apples,
parishii, Arabidopsis thaliana daffodils, pumpkins and
grasses

Causes homogenous conditions in Causes heterozygous

progenies. condition in progenies.

Self-pollination increases genetic Cross-pollination decreases

uniformity and decreases genetic genetic uniformity and
variation. increases genetic variation.

Causes inbreeding. Causes outbreeding.

Reduces the gene pool. Maintains the gene pool.

Produces limited amounts of Produces large amounts of

pollen grains. pollen grains.

In self-pollination, both the In cross-pollination, both the

stigma and anther simultaneously stigma and anther mature at
mature different times.

Transfers a limited number of Transfers large numbers of

pollens. pollen.

This process is carried out even For cross-pollination to

when the flowers are closed. happen, the flower should be
open.

No need for pollinators to transfer Require pollinators to transfer

pollen grains. pollen grains.

Pollen grains are transferred Pollen grains are carried via

directly to a flower’s stigma. wind, insects, animals, water,
etc.

d) psychophily and hymenophily

ans: Psychophilia is the adaptation to pollination by butterflies. This

syndrome includes long- tube flowers or stem-plate flowers, which are
tubular flowers combined with a landing site for pollinators. The nectar is
hidden up to 40 mm deep in the mostly narrow tubular flowers. The flower
color is often red, also blue, yellow, rarely white. Flower marks are common.
The flowers do not smell intensely and - for humans - pleasant. Often come
Schaukelantheren ago.

A typical butterfly flower is the fire lily ( Lilium bulbiferum ): The nectar is
formed in narrow channels on the tepals . The tepals of the Turk's Union lily
( Lilium martagon ) are turned back and so smooth that the butterflies
cannot land. They are therefore pollinated by the pigeon tail ( Macroglossum
) in hovering flight . Butterfly flowers are widespread among the carnation
family, such as red light carnation ( Silene dioica ), corn leaf ( Agrostemma
githago ), the cruciferous family (Brassicaceae), and the cardiac family
(Dipsacaceae).

Important representatives of pollinators are the thick-headed butterflies

(Hesperiidae), bluebells (Lycaenidae), spotted butterflies ( Nymphalinae ),
whiteflies (Pieridae) and knight butterfly (Papilionidae).
Pollination due to Hymenoptera is hymenophily. Hymenoptera have
mouthparts that are usually adapted to varying degrees to a licking or
sucking diet, especially nectar and sugary juices. These usually consist of the
intergrown labium and maxilla, which act as a functional unit and which
form a structure known as the labiomaxillary complex. In combination with
this, they almost always have normal, biting-chewing mandibles. However,
these are rarely used directly for nutrition. They have been modified for a
variety of other purposes, including freeing up quarters and doll covers and
building nests.

e) open and closed style

Ans:

Bundles:

1. Vascular bundle contains a strip of cambium in between phloem and

xylem.

2. Phloem and xylem do not lie in direct contact with each other.

3. Due to activity of cambium, original or primary phloem and xylem move

away from each other. Secondary phloem and secondary xylem are formed in
between.

4. Open vascular bundles occur in dicot and gymnosperm stems.

5. Open vascular bundles can be collateral and bi-collateral.

Closed:

1. Intra-fascicular cambium is absent.

2. . Phloem and xylem occur in direct contact with each other.

3. There is no such activity.

4. Closed vascular bundles are found in leaves and monocot stems.

5. Closed vascular bundles can be collateral or concentric.

10. Write short notes on:

a) advantages of cross pollination

ans: Advantages of cross pollination:

Progeny shows enhanced vigor.

Offsprings are more viable and resistant.

There is a possibility to get new desirable characters.

Yield of crop can be maintained.

It helps in evolution.

Undesirable characters of the plant can be eliminated.

b) parthenocarpy

ans: The condition in which fruits are developed without the formation of
seeds is called parthenocarpy. This process of fruit production was
introduced in the year 1902. This is mainly due to the absence of fertilization
in plants, pollination and embryo development. In botany, parthenocarpic
fruit means “virgin fruit”. These types of fruits are generally seedless.

During cultivation, parthenocarpy is introduced along with other plant

hormones including gibberellic acid. It results in the maturation of the
ovaries without the process of fertilization and produces bigger and pulpy
fruits. This process is applicable to all kinds of crops from varieties of squash
to cucumber and a lot more.

Banana is a good example of parthenocarpy. In this natural process, the

produced bananas are sterile, developed without viable ovaries and do not
produce seeds, which means they must propagate vegetatively. Pineapples
and figs are also examples of parthenocarpy which occur naturally.

c) pneumatophores

ans: Pneumatophores are specialized root structures that grow out from the
water surface and facilitate the aeration necessary for root respiration in
hydrophytic trees such as many mangrove species (e.g., Avicennia germinans
and Laguncularia raecemosa), bald cypresses, and cotton (tupelo) gum
(Nyssa aquatica).

d) commercial cork

ans:

e) insectivorous plants

ans:
These plants are specialized in trapping insects and are popularly known as
insectivorous plants.

They are very different from normal plants in their mode of nutrition. They,
however, never prey upon humans or large animals.

Insectivorous plants can broadly be divided into active and passive types
based on their method of trapping their prey.

The active ones can close their leaf traps the moment insects land on them.

The passive plants have a ‘pitfall’ mechanism, having some kind of jar or
pitcher-like structure into which the insect slips and falls, to eventually be
digested.

The insectivorous plants often have several attractions such as brilliant

colors, sweet secretions and other curios to lure their innocent victims.