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Shrichakradhar.com 9958947060

ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2021)

MTTM-10: TOURISM IMPACTS
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions
given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private
Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can

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answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accuracy of these sample
answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample
answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions

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given in the assignment. As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so
the chances of error or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though
every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own
Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data

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and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the

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university.

Q1. Describe global characteristics of tourism impacts. Give suitable examples.

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Ans. “Tourism is a highly internationalised industry subject to globalisation tendencies, as is evident
in respect of the media images which help shape the tourist gaze, and growth of multinational
tourism companies. While most tourism involves activities within national borders, and few tourists
have time and money to engage in a genuinely global scan of tourism destinations, globalisation
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processes are affecting even the most localised of tourism patterns. Not the least, they shape the
expectations of tourists, and intensify place competition.”
Today, tourism is being talked about at practically all international forums (Economic, political or
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cultural). In fact, it has thrown up its own international organisations from all sections of the tourism
players. Being the largest industry of the world international business goes on, travel markets are
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held and with extensive use of Internet tourism now products and services are marketed directly to
the consumers at a global level. One estimate puts one out of every nine workers in the world
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employed in the tourism industry. As per the WTO Tourism Highlights 2000:
“Tourism clearly counts as one of the most remarkable economic and social phenomena of the last
century. It undoubtedly will keep this position for the century to come. Every year a bigger portion of
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the world population takes part in tourism activity and for the majority of countries tourism has
developed as one of the most dynamic and fastest sectors of economy.”
The world has seen tourism as a challenge to enhance opportunities for both tourists and residents.
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From 25 million in 1950, to 620 million in 2000, tourism has often been called the fastest growing
industry. Today the volume of international tourist arrivals is twenty times that of the 50’s.
International tourism has had a spectacular growth in the last three decades of the twentieth century.
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It gained phenomenal proportions after the Second World War. However, tourism growth is
unequally spread over different regions as the top ten tourist destinations do not feature any Asian
destination except China and the top ten earners from tourism do not feature any Asian destination
except Hong Kong.
The growth rate for the period 89-90 to 94-95 was affected by the economic recession in America,
Europe and East Asia. Though a revival has taken place, until the year 2005, the growth rate of
tourism is expected to stabilize at 4.2%. Long Haul travel is forecast as the growing element, while
short and medium haul are likely to stagnate. The WTO pegs the growth rate of international tourism
at 3.6%. This estimates 977 million tourists by the year 2010. Whilst tourist arrivals and departures
continue to be concentrated in Western Europe and North America, the East-Pacific region has
emerged as the fastest growing destination area in the past decade. Interestingly, the first half of the

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90’s saw a slowing down of the growth of tourism, with the Asian region again showing uneven
results. East Asian and the Pacific grew at a faster rate and South Asia stagnated. In some countries
there was a negative rate of growth. As WTO data indicates, all regions of the world are likely to be
involved in this phenomenal activity. The economic impact is great, but it has two aspects: costs and
benefits.
The Economic importance of tourism is also widely appreciated, but again uneven. 83 countries count
tourism as one of its top 5 foreign exchange earners. 38 countries are totally dependent on tourism
earnings. 8% of total export earnings on goods and services worldwide are contributed by tourism.

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Tourism receipts, including airfares, topped the list of exports at $532 billion. Economic indicators like
Growth in GDP, reduction of inflation and volume of Trade are signs of a continued growth and
expansion of tourism, but they do not necessarily mean that all countries will benefit from this

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forecast. However, the forecasts for tourism depend heavily on the state of the U.S. economy, the
conflicts that continue to disturb peace and the role of oil prices which can create inflationary
pressures.

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There are a number of key factors that have highlighted mass tourism as the fastest growin g industry

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in the world. Increasing leisure time as a consequence of economic growth in industrialized countries;
lifestyle and work related changes, like flexi-time, working from home, part time workers etc;
technological changes, particularly in the civil aviation sector and communications, that have
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increased reliability and reduced costs, to ensure the accessibility of world tourism to the middle
class.
Significant demographic changes have been observed, due to better health facilities, for older citize ns
and retirees in most affluent societies, as well as the impact of globalization and liberalization of the
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world economies, and the retreat of socialism in the USSR and Eastern Europe. This has resulted in a
unipolar world, leading to the breaking down of ideological barriers and a growing awareness of and
interest in other cultures, ways of life, habitats, heritage and the environment. Travel, which has been
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one of the “freedoms” of the market economies, continues to be dominated by the leaders of the
market economies. As industry has slowed down and the old economy is being replaced by the new
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economy, the growth in the services is reflected in the increasing importance of international tourism
as well. Although mass tourism was a phenomenon of the post Second World War period, and the
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United Nations declared it a developmental sector at its Rome Conference in 1968, the Lome
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Conference of least developed countries in 1975 did not identify tourism as a support to economic
development for African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. Lome II acknowledged the role of tourism
in rebuilding war-ravaged Europe. It was only at Lome III in 1985 that tourism was given priority and
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since then there has been no going back.

Tourist Arrivals: From 25 million in 1950 to 664 million in 1999, the average annual growth rate of
tourism, as per WTO has been 7 per cent. Though the concentration of tourists continued, in terms of
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arrivals, in Europe, Americas and East Asia/ Pacific regions a diversification has been taking place
with destinations of Asia, North Africa, Latin America and Caribbean islands joining in the race.
International Tourism Receipts: In terms of international tourism receipts an estimated US$455
billion were generated in the year 1999. Table 4 mentions the world’s top earners in this regard and
Table 5 lists the top tourism destinations. The figures indicate that the spread of benefits has been
uneven and when compared with arrivals, it is clear that increasing volumes does not necessarily
imply increasing revenues.

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Tourism Generating Markets: Trends in the generating markets also show some changes. Although
the industralised countries, because of their income and cultural habits continue to dominate the
market, more than half of the world’s tourists originate in Europe. Within this market, Urban centres
of Germany, Holland, U.K. and to a smaller extent, Sweden and Austria, contribute the most tourists.
One in five tourists originate in America. However, the market in the Americas is not very fast
growing since domestic and regional tourism is very popular. The rate of outbound tourism in East

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Asia and the Pacific has been given a boost due to the rising incomes in the Tiger economies. The
share of this region has therefore risen to 15% of the outbound market. Despite the economic crisis,
the rate of growth has been steady since smaller countries in the region continue to attract the middle
class from Taiwan, Korea and Hong Kong. Africa, the Middle East and South Asia contribute 5% of
the outbound market. Their growth levels, however, are well below the world average, reflecting the
poverty of the region. In fact, for South Asia the figures indicate a decline from 1.3% to 0.9%. This is
certainly the impact of Globalisation on these economies

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The purpose of trip for international travel as per the WTO data is:
• Leisure, recreation and holidays 62 per cent
• Business travel 18 per cent, and

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• Motives like pilgrimage, health, visiting friends, etc. 20 per cent.

Q2. Which type of economic analysis is done to measure the impacts of travel and tourism
development?

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Ans. There are three main analysis methods which allow the calculation of tourism’s economic

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impact, methods which are described below.
The Analysis of Importance (Significance Analysis) is concerned with extracting the size and structure
of tourism sector from the national accounts data, taking into account the spending of residents, as
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well as from abroad. This system focuses specifically on identifying the tourism sector’s share in
spending and gross domestic product (GDP) (Stynes, 1999). The system approach includes also a
number of criteria to identify the definition of the visitor and tourist, and the environment as usual,
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tourist consumption classification, collective spending on tourism, gross fixed capital formation in the
tourism sector, and to identify tourism or tourism-related products and activities, ways of measure
the contribution of the overall tourism activity in gross domestic product (GDP) (Jackson, 2005), size
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of employment and fixed capital. It also includes general principles of the system details on methods
of calculating the contribution of the tourism sector in types of consumption, activities, and displays
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them in a number and tables.

The second analysis method - Impact Analysis - focuses on the impact of money spent by external
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tourists in addition to the money that returns from foreign tourism to the domestic tourism on the
economy of a region, whether it is a direct impact (on hotels and restaurants, transport, museums and
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retailers) or an indirect one (income and employment), taking into account the nature of the
interaction between the tourism sector and other economic sectors (Pao, 2005). This analysis is
characterized by flexibility in terms of the degree of circular, which could be used to analyze the
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overall impact of tourism on the economy of the state as a whole, or analyze the impact of a particular
type of spending tourists on a specific type of tourist activities. Different methodologies are used in
this framework, including tables input - output where it is tracking the effects of increased tourism
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spending on the various sectors of the economy on and through the entanglements between those
sectors.
The Cost - Benefit Analysis is a type of analysis which has a focus on the feasibility and efficiency of
tourism projects (Duffield, 1982) from the point of view of society and is therefore interested in
measuring the private and social benefits (such as the educational value of tourism) and the private
and social costs (such as the impact of tourism on the environment).

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3. Research hypotheses: Researchers’ studies prove that tourism plays a major role in the long run

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economic growth (Schuber, Brida & Wiston, 2011) and has an influence across overall economy
contributing to the development of countries in the end. A study in Spain discovered a stable long-
run relationship between tourism and economic growth (Balaguer, 2002). Therefore, the investigated
hypothesis is: the evolution of the revenues generated by the tourism industry has an impact over
Romania’s GDP and eliminates business complexity at a macroeconomic level, getting sustainable

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development in emergent economies as a result.

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4. Analysis method: The factor analyzed to prove our hypothesis is tourism total contribution to GDP
in our four selected emergent markets which is obtained by GDP generated by direct travel and
tourism industries plus the indirect and induced contributions which include the contribution of
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capital investment spending. This factor was explained in USD billion at current prices and exchange
rates, through annual percentage change in the 2000 in US $ billion series and the share of travel and
tourism spending or employment in the equivalent economy-wide concept in the published national
income accounts or labour market statistics. Visitor’s exports are compared with exports of all goods
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and services, domestic travel and tourism spending is compared with GDP, government individual
travel and tourism spending is compared with total government spending, internal travel and
tourism consumption is compared with total internal consumption (i.e. total domestic spending plus
total export), leisure travel and tourism contribution to GDP is compared with total GDP, business
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travel and tourism contribution to GDP is compared with total GDP, travel and tourism capital
investment spending is compared with all fixed investment spending.
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5. Descriptive statistics: In order to analyze the time evolution of the concerned socio-economic
phenomenon, the tourism industry's contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP) of a country
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from the beginning of the 21st century and up to the present time, we have considered four member
states of the European Union, two of which being located in the eastern part of Europe - Romania and
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Hungary - and the other two in the West - France and Spain. Authors assume a descriptive analysis
based on absolute values of GDP generated by the tourism industry, this being determined by the
relative reporting that is not relevant because of differences in the status of the countries concerned
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and the size of the tourism phenomenon in them. According to the chart below, the first mentioned
country experienced two periods in terms of tourism contribution to GDP: the one before the
integration to the European Union (before January 1st, 2007) and another one following the
integration. The first period has recorded a racing growth and at a constant rate of the extent to which
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the tourism contributed to GDP until 2007, when we can see an increase of $ 2.92 billion (45%)
compared to the previous year.

Q3. Write an essay on “Local Agenda 21’.

Ans. Increasingly, governance all over the world is becoming decentralized. Decision-making is also
becoming localized. The current approach, linking eco-tourism to local development has been
extended to cover heritage conservation as well. The 1992 World Summit at Rio promoted the Agenda
21 giving local government and authorities the undisputed responsibility for sustainable
development. For tourism, the Local Agenda 21 has been an important policy support to encourage
local control over tourism development and its benefits.

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The UNCED Conference in 1992 adopted the Agenda 21, ratified by 182 governments. Given the
estimated importance of tourism to world trade and the economy with an output of
$3.4Billion,creating employment for 211 million, producing 10.9% of the world gross domestic
product and investing $693.9 billion in new facilities and $ 637 billion in tax revenues (WTTC, 1995), it
would be an important area for sustainable policies and practices.
The down side of the local Agenda-21 argument is that niche sectors like National Parks, protected
areas and fragile ethnic communities are coming under increasing pressure. These pressures include
the need to develop tourism infrastructure and facilities, the carrying capacity of local communities,

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tour operators’ demands of events and services, the pressure for recreational opportunities of local
citizens and domestic tourists who have become outdoor oriented. The question raises an important
empowerment issue. If nature sells, should the “correct” use of resources for the development of a

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region include eco-tourism? As exploration of the world has reached the farthest corners, new
products and destinations are moving into areas that did not have a tourist friendly image in the past.
Perhaps that was the protection they needed. However, now that phase is over.
It is already possible to book organized treks to the highest mountain peaks. Since 1985, 45 tourist
submarines and 96.2 million passengers have participated in underwater viewing or deepsea tours.

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Cultural tours, like viewing the wreck of the Titanic have also started operating. Antarctica has

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already found itself to be a tourist destination receiving 10,000 visitors in 1999. Eco-tourism, which
ranges from highly focused study tours to large numbers of resort tourists making day trips or short
photographic invasions to nature reserves in vacation periods, is now generating some $20 billion per
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year. Eco tourists now constitute 20% of the international market. The new tourist will want
maximum thrills in minimum time, being poor in leisure time but rich in money. Tourism to the
Amazon, the Sahara and the Artic are just beginning to open up local communities at the far ends of
the earth to tourist activity. Thus, the local Ag
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Q4. Discuss the social and economic issues that have emerged because of the relationship between
tourism and crafts.
Ans. Tourists don’t produce arts or crafts. They buy and hence influence them. The explorer would
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look for the real, the cultural tourist for something authentic whereas a mass tourist would ask for a
souvenir or memento to take back home. Can we describe the arts and handicrafts that the tourists
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buy, gaze or consume as tourist arts? Well, to an extent yes. The earlier expression that the label
tourist arts can be tagged on all that which revives declining practices and styles and is developed for
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an international craft market, has been described as “inadequate or misleading” by G. Evans (Fair
Trade: Cultural Tourism and Craft Production in Third World, 1994). He argues that the “explosion in
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demand for original craft prices – functional and decorative – has reached beyond the tourist-
exposure which has fuelled ethnic art trade”. These activities of art production and exchange go on,
independent of tourism and tourist interaction and yet intermediaries influence their production.
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Today, different typologies are there for various art forms, like:
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Tourist arts are a part of the merchandising of “local colour”. This indicates the commoditisation of
local culture as a part of the promotion of the “natural resources” of a destination that are used to
attract tourists. Their essential attributes are that they should be had made, using local materials,
should be a part of the basket of goods used locally, and should be produced by users and artisans on
the spot. It is the last attribute that gives to tourist arts their authenticity. Their transformation into
souvenirs is the function of the market economy that uses the existence of an integrated system of
meaning (culture) by means of which a community established the nature of reality, and transforms it
into a commodity.

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Economists and Planners see culture as a resource. Sociologists and anthropologists see culture as a
reaffirmation of the beliefs and relationships of a social group with regard to its reality. Thus, people
are turned into cultural extensions of the media promotion of tourism because they are identified by
their tourist arts and not viceversa.
Tourism arts based on ethnic practices are now beginning to change the relationship between
tourism, ethnicity and arts. They are, in fact, a part of the relationship between material symbols,
outsiders demand and the defence and reformulation of ethnic identity. The production of tourist arts
is also playing a role in creating uniformity in the attitude towards tourism, material heritage and

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museums. This is happening particularly among the middle classes – the major participants in mass
tourism. In inter-cultural interaction, arts and crafts have also become conveyers of meaning. There
are also certain social issues that have emerged with the growth of tourism and the demand for

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objects of art to take back as souvenirs:
• have the arts become “totems” of touristic identity?
• do they affect the front-stage and back-stage behaviour of the hosts who produce them?
• do they modify the self-perceptions of ethnic groups through externally imposed views?
• does the transfer of ethnic images from the periphery to the metropolis create ethnic

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stereotypes in the same way as other mediums of representation?

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• do handmade items have greater authenticity?
Tourist art traditions, according to Nelson Graburn, do not only modify ethnic traditions of cultural
expression, but also change the perceptions of the host ethnic group that produce them. Through the
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arts, the ethnic group itself becomes an object of tourism. Although many groups are able to separate
their own identify as a cultural basis, from the material symbols they create to play upon the tourist
stereotypes, this is not the case for all communities. Strong influences over a period of time can
modify cultural self-perception. Ethnic groups can begin to measure themselves or to find meaning in
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symbols that are imposed from the outside. For example, Israel has started a Boombamela, after
25,000 Israelis visited the Kumbh. They represent Indian “spirituality” outside its location and
context. A Mediterranean beach replaces the sacred Ganges. Just as the Kumbh set up camps to attract
high profile western tourists with the appearance of spirituality at the Kumbh, so the Kumbh has
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been appropriated and transferred to a site where the mela aspect gains more meaning than the
spiritual.
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Tourism arts have other features that are special in the guest-host relationship. This is the export of
tourist arts, or what Aspelin has called indirect tourism. This transfer of a bamboo fan or a rice
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cleaning sieve, into other uses as determined by the tourist, creates ethnic confusion as well as
stereotype of a rural culture in much the same way that films do. Travelogues and audio-visual
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advertisements also play the same role in transforming the meaning of for example Kerala’s Elephant
March from a ritual of significance into a pageant. The producers get this feedback of their touristic
“ethnic” image and they often begin to make the meaningless transformation to the souvenir trade for
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economic gain. For example, the marble or stone representation of the Taj Mahal is never seen as a
“monument of love”, which in any case is a transformation of a grave into something romantic. It is
seen as a representation not of the inlay art and skill of the artisans of Agra, but a symbol of having
seen one of the wonders of the world with ones own eyes and carrying a replica back, small enough
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to be transported by air. How many know that the local superstition deems it bad luck to have a
replica of the Taj in your home? Would this taboo be respected? How serious would the conflict be in
the mind of the tourist? And how serious is the belief for the one who is mass-producing the artefact?
The process of change and transformation passes from an isolated tradition through the evolution of
cultural changes to modern pluralism. This happens when functional traditional art is first replicated
commercially and transformed into a novelty or a souvenir that is then reintegrated into the ethnic
artistic tradition and becomes a form of popular or assimilated art. In case where there is a continuity
of traditional aesthetics and the role of the traditional artists remains central, so that the artist is able
to separate the sacred art from the secular, giving to the novelty its authenticity by using the
traditional procedures, materials and designs, then it could be considered an authentic handmade

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piece for a buyer who is knowledgeable and cares for the reality that has created the artistic
inspiration. For example, tourist Tangkhas made in Nepal fall in both categories, i.e., touristic arts as
well as pieces of art created for the knowledgeable buyer.
Before we go ahead let us try to understand the souvenirs and souvenir purchasing behaviour. While
the tourism product is intangible “the souvenir is a tangible symbol and reminder of an experience
that differs from daily routine and that otherwise would remain intangible, such as memories of
people, places and events” (Luella F, Anderson and Mary Ann Littrell : “Souvenir Purchase
Behaviour of Women Tourists”, Annals of Tourism Research (ATR), Vol.22, No.2, 1995). When you

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travel and buy a souvenir, you not only retain it as a valued possession but you are equally
enthusiastic to display and talk about your possession. Similarly, you buy souvenirs for a variety of
reasons:

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• to be given as a gift back home to your friends, relatives or may be your boss?
• to keep your memories fresh about the place you visited,
• to possess a unique object of art,
• to demonstrate your care of an ethnic art object,
• to add to your collection of arts,

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• to boast in your social circle about your trip, and so on.

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Again, souvenirs can be of many types:
Pictorial (photographs, postcard images, paintings, etc.)
• Handmade crafts (all beads, jewellery to metal wares, pottery, etc.)
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• Textiles, wall hangings,
• Indigenous products (herbs, honey, etc.),
• Replicas (of sculpture, monuments, etc.),
• Natural items (sandal wood, etc.),
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• Artificial items (curios, etc.) and so on.

Why tourists buy and what they buy as souvenirs is closely linked to their attitudes and purchase
behaviour. All these three aspects have an impact on tourist arts (both on forms and production
process). Not much research has gone into this area – particularly in the context of India. However,
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certain findings of the study conducted by Anderson and Liltrell on souvenir purchase behaviour of
women tourists are worth citing here:
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• they “enjoyed learning from shopkeepers about authentic souvenirs for sale”,
• they “found pleasure in observing artisans who demonstrated making” crafts,
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• they “observe crafts people” and this gives more meaning and authenticity to souvenirs,
hence, more chances of purchase.
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Q5. What do you understand by guest-host interaction? Also discuss related issues.
Ans. It was only from the 1970s that researchers got attracted towards what is now termed as the
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“sociology of tourism”. Valine Smith, De Kadt, MacCannel and may other scholars looked at various
aspects from the impact of mass tourism to the impacts on societies having tourists from other
different structural societies. Erik Cohen distinguished five major theoretical points of departure to
the sociological study of tourism, i.e., the sociology of:
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• stranger,
• leisure,
• hospitality,
• travel, and
• religion.
Cohen further mentions six interrelated trends that can be distinguished in the development of the
sociology of tourism:
• “Critical attitude to tourism as a kind of aberration”
• “Study of tourists as a product of (modern) society to the study of (modern) society through
tourism”.

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• An ‘etic’ attitude to ‘emic’, i.e., from outside to inside,

• “From concerned with individual psychological motives for tourism to a growing
preoccupation with tourism” in the context of “expressing significant social symbols”,
• Giving up of general categories like tourist and tourism to “a growing awareness of the
significant differences between a wide variety of types of tourists and touristic processes”.
This includes “the differential impacts on the host and their environment, economy and
society”,
• Shifting from general findings “to studies devoted specifically to the investigation of tourism

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as a field of enquiry in its own rights”.
According to Pierre L. van den Berghe (Cultural Impact of Tourism, 1994), “If tourists are by
definition not at home, they are strangers among strangers, and indeed, frequently savour that

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mutual otherness as a key ingredient of the tourism experience. Tourism inescapably involves contact
between groups of people who might otherwise not meet, and who differ on one or more dimensions
of social class, religion, language, ethnicity, or race. Tourism, thus, must be seen as a special form of
culture contact, of race and ethnic relations, and of the class relations, all phenomena of central
interest to sociologists and anthropologists.”

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Pierre has mentioned seven properties of tourist-host interaction which make it a unique case of

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understanding social relations. These according to him are:
1) Asymmetrical interactions: These are because of the following two vital dimensions:
a) The higher status of the tourists compared to the hosts not only in relation to “first world tourism
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in third world countries, but is also obvious in much internal tourism within rich countries”.
According to him, though all tourists are not wealthier than the locals but “nearly all tourist-host
interaction takes the form of an unequal relationship between consumers of sights, spectacles, and
services, and those who provide these commodities either simply by being there, making a spectacle
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of themselves, or by making a living from tourism. Egalitarian interaction between tourist and host is
rare.”
b) Asymmetry of useful knowledge: This cuts across in the opposite direction to that on the status.
According to him, “The host has the great advantage of being on home turf and, thus, knowledgeable
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of local conditions, prices, sights, services, and so on. That knowledge, pitched against tourist
ignorance, can be turned to profit. The tourist, on the other hand, faces the option of either learning
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fast or being “taken”.

2) Ephemeral interactions: The tourist-hosts interactions generally are unlikely to be repeated. This
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brings in an attitude of “mistrust, cheating, and broken contracts”. According to him, “both sides
have limited expectations of each other where immediacy of the exchange is considered the best
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substitute of nonexisting trust.” In fact, both sides may express surprise when not cheated by each
other.
3) Segmented and instrumental interactions: According to him these interactions are “entered into
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for specific, limited and immediate purposes and they are not expected to have far reaching or long
lasting consequences”. However, one can question these hypotheses of Pierre in relation to impacts.
4) Vulnerability to faulty communication: Since these interactions are conducted across linguistic
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and cultural barriers “in the absence of mutually understood norms and expectations” in certain
delicate matters they can generate misunderstandings.
5) Cultural distance: This determines the barriers to interactions between the two.
6) Crude stereotypes: The interaction between the two takes place within the framework of the
perceptions of each side about the other.
7) Profitable and enjoyable interactions: According to Pierre, because the mutual expectations are
low and the interactions are carefully bracketed in both time and space, they are found to be
profitable and enjoyable.

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Q6. What is cultural tourism? Differentiate between the real and the staged forms in cultural
tourism. Give suitable examples.
Ans. When we discuss the issue of cultural tourism we have to inform ourselves of the shift from the
normative (good/bad/negative/positive) nature of the debate on the links between culture and
tourism, to the interventions of the sociology and anthropology of tourism. Researchers have
accepted the difficulty in determining the role of cultural attractions in tourism. How many views of a
culture people can have is a vital question. Is it the quality of the hotel, the air connections and the
availability of air-conditioned cars that determines the popularity of a destination (say, the North

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Indian Golden Triangle) or its cultural components?
Valene Smith (1972) has suggested a five-fold typology:
• Recreational or sun lust tourism

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• Environmental tourism
• Historical tourism
• Ethnic tourism
• Cultural tourism
Valene Smith defines cultural tourism as “including the picturesque or local colour, a vestige of the

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vanishing lifestyle that lies within human memory with its old style houses, homespun fabrics,

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traditional transport and technology and handmade crafts… this is the peasant culture, illustrated by
the case studies of Bali and Spain”. Ethnic tourism is defined by its direct focus on people living out a
cultural identity whose uniqueness is being marketed for tourists; tourists are interested in the
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cultural practices, which define a unique ethnicity as for example the Western Himalayan Buddhist
enclaves. Cultural tourism on the other hand defines situations where the role of culture is contextual,
where it shapes the tourists experience, without a focus on its uniqueness. It emphasises artefacts
rather than concrete cultural activities of people. Ethnic tourism and cultural tourism thus have
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boundaries which maybe crossed by the presenter in formulating tours or staging performances.
According to James Clifford, “Culture is a coherent body that lives and dies. Culture is enduring,
traditional and structural (rather than contingent, syncretic, historical). Culture is a process of
ordering, not disruption. It changes and develops like a living organism. It does not normally survive
k

abrupt alterations.
For him, cultural identity is an ongoing process, politically contested and historically unfinished. It is
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always mixed, relational and inventive. Cultural concepts are used by ethnic groups to interpret
themselves to themselves, to one another and to the other.
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Let us see how this links to Third World cultures in the face of tourism and development. Tourism
uses:
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• not mere tradition but its ongoing symbolic reconstitution;

• not authenticity but its attribution;
• not inherited identities but relational, contested and improvised ones;
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• not culture but cultural invention and local discourse;

• not internalised values but strategies for action

Q7. Analyze current status of wildlife tourism in India. What are the problems of wildlife tourism
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in India?
Ans. Wildlife Tourism in India: Wildlife Tourism is a crucial element in wildlife protection. It is the
tourists who can be potential force of wildlife conservation and conversely it is also tourists who can
adversely affect a wilderness area through excessive pressure on fragile eco-system. It is upto the
developer and the tourists to the wilderness to decide which path they want to pursue. Although the
term ‘eco-tourism’ is used often, this can’t become a reality without the active participation of the
tourists. Lot many precautions are regularly taken, yet when ‘development’ reaches wilderness, it
brings along with it many imbalances to the wildlife. Impacts on wildlife resulting from development
can be classified into two general categories:
• Impacts resulting from increased human use of the area,

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• Impacts resulting from different levels of surface – disturbing activities, such as, road
construction or mineral development.
Human presence bring along with them vehicles, vehicular pollution and noise, boats, planes and
general disturbance. For example, animal who normally forage along the river corridor during the
summer would move to other areas if the presence of additional humans, boats or planes disturbed
them. Also animal life is likely to be destroyed to protect human life. However, it takes time, some
years for any impact to be noticeable. For example, poaching and hunting have led to the extinction
on Indian Cheetah, but it took a long time for the impact to be noticeable. Development in general has

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an adverse impact on most species of wildlife by displacing them from habitat. Moreover, the
clamouring for the development of tourist related facilities in itself present significant threats to fish,
wildlife and wilderness value. One tends to forget that it’s the wilderness, which is allowing us to

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experience itself and go overboard on the mission of development.
Take the example of now fragile environment of Annapurna region of Nepal. Ever since
mountaineering and trekking became a popular Western pastime in the 1970s and 1980s, the
Annapurna range has been a focus for many of the estimated 2,00,000 annual visitors that Nepal
receives most of whom come from Europe, Canada and Japan. One-third of these visitors are

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estimated to trek into the area each year, outnumbering the local population by a ratio of two-to-one

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(Annapurna Conservation Area Project, 1993). What they have left behind in a fragile environment,
which can barely sustain its own local inhabitants, is a world increasingly blighted by their presence.
In January 1994, a conservationist with the Annapurna Conservation Area Project pointed out that:
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“70,000 visitors a year may not seem a lot of people compared with the number of tourists to other
places. But for an environment like the Annapurnas, with its delicate ecological balance between
human presence and natural resources, it is rapidly becoming 70,000 visitors too many”.
The negative environmental impact is obvious to any sensitive visitor to the area. The poor, native
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villages scattered along the main valley to the mountains have now been complemented by numerous
guesthouses and lodges, which continue to be built every year. These are almost entirely constructed
of wood from the surrounding forests, and the need to feed and heat thousands of visitors has led to
further encroachments on scarce resources.
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The resulting soil erosion is evidenced in the large swathes of terrain that have literally been washed
away by the heavy monsoon rains. The statistics make disturbing reading: 96 per cent of Nepal’s
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energy comes from the forests. Current figures show that these are disappearing at the rate of 3 per
cent every year. One hectare of cleared forest loses 30-75 tons of topsoil annually. In Nepal as a whole,
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approximately 4,00,000 hectares are cleared each year, resulting in devastating landslides and floods
as water sweeps off the unprotected mountains. The lodges in one small village along the major
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Annapurna trekking route consume one hectare of virgin rhododendron forest each tourist season to
service the needs of their foreign visitors.
The strain on local systems of waste management and disposal has also proved overwhelming. Litter
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lies in scattered piles on the outskirts of villages or strewn along the banks of rivers. Trekkers and
mountaineers bring many non-biodegradable items into the valley such as beer cans, tins and
wrappers. It has been calculated that if the number of plastic bottles imported into the area each year
were placed end to end they would reach the peak of the highest mountain in the Annapurnas.
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Annapurna Region’s fragile eco-system supports both wildlife and humans and its imbalance is
affecting both.
Wildlife Strategy – Problem Areas
Protecting wildlife in a country as scattered populous and huge, like India is in itself a daunting task.
India accounts for a good proportion of world’s floral and faunal diversity, nevertheless the rate of
depletion of this gene pool is also alarming. A lot of measures have already been taken to take care of
the problem but certain problem areas remain to be addressed to.
a) The strategy of conservation by a network of protected areas and specific animal conservation
projects itself has some major problems.

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• The protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries do not have adequate infrastructure and
manpower to monitor vast forest tracts.
• The displacement of tribals and other forest people from the demarcated areas has not
augured well for the health of the forests and wildlife. The displaced tribals have either been
rehabilitated in the neighbouring forestlands or continue to derive their livelihood from the
forest by aiding the poachers or smuggling wildlife and forest products. Some experiments in
the joint forest management areas have shown that the tribals can be successfully
incorporated in any programme of forest and wildlife management.

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• The protected areas account for only 4% of India’s total landmass and as such there is a
massive depletion in the biological health outside these protected areas. Perhaps it has rightly
been said that “islands of diversity is surrounded by oceans of devastation”

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b) The tendency to treat forests and wildlife as separate entities and as such separate legislations often
accounts for the lack of a coherent comprehensive policy. There is thus the need for a broadbased
wildlife strategy.
c) A great deal of emphasis has been put on the ‘big game’. Big mammals and other animals have
received a great deal of attention in our wildlife programmes while many species of plants and

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microorganisms have been neglected.

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d) The state has failed to respond effectively to the new problems like insurgents and terrorists taking
shelter in forests and increased instances of poaching and smuggling of wildlife products.
e) There are many species of wildlife that have not been documented yet. Fear is being expressed that
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they may be lost to mankind forever even before getting detected.
f) The Wildlife Protection Act, though a protection act does not protect species enumerated under
Schedule V.
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Q8. Discuss the tourism potential of islands and beaches of India. Give suitable examples.
Ans. A tourist expects certain facilities at the destination for his/her journey to be comfortable and
pleasurable. The important ingredients of a tourist product must take of travel, boarding facilities,
food-arrangements, entertainment and attractions. Most of the facilities offered in tourism belong to
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the service sector, hence require careful handling as these can not be stored for lean period and can
not be instantly supplied during peak season.
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Concept of Tourist Product: As a concept tourist product is the wholesome facilities offered to the
tourist. We can say that a tourist expects following facilities at any destination offered as tourist
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product:
• to be able to visit places of interest,
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• to be able to make use of time available with him/her and there should be minimal waste of
time and have enough time to enjoy place of interest,
• should have proper connectivity with variety of transport so as to avoid hustle of waiting for
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the transport,
• should have variety of food to enjoy the local cuisine as well as continental,
• should get an exposure to the local culture and life style, and
• should have enough space to enjoy the nature and surroundings.
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Above mentioned expectations can be covered by managing the following facilities:

• Infra-structural facilities,
• Ancillary facilities, and
• Marketing.
At the same time the environmental constraints should be taken care of so as to minimise the adverse
impacts. The carrying capacity of the area under consideration as a tourist product should be
analysed carefully to determine the nature of tourist product can be designed and offered to the
tourists.

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Islands and beaches of India: Beaches along the coast provide numerous recreational opportunities
for millions of people. Boating, fishing, swimming, walking and sunbathing are among the numerous
activities enjoyed by beachgoers. Beaches provide unique habitats for a variety of plants and animals.
Most of the migratory water fowls depend on coastal beaches during their life span. In the hot wet
climate of the tropics, mangrove trees dominate estuarine lagoonal beaches. In the harsher climate,
beaches are dominated by a few species of hardy grasses and bushes that can withstand strong winds
and intense summer sun. With this unique beach ecosystem, there is a large scope for the
development of beach tourism in an ecologically sound manner.

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Beach tourism has grown significantly throughout the world bringing enormous economic benefits to
host communities, and causing many environmental and social impacts to the coastal environment.
Development of beach resorts and attractions continues to expand to meet increasing intra-regional

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and domestic demand which is supplemented by long-haul demand.
While there are many successful resorts and attractions, development and operation of these has often
been associated with environmental degradation, congestion, community problems and less than
desired economic performances. Beach resort development faces problems due to an inability on the
part of stakeholders to make sound decisions about sustainable design due to the complexity of the

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sustainability issues and the lack of comprehensive decision-making tools to assist them.

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Beach tourism often lacks a comprehensive approach linking sustainability indicators and carrying
capacities in design models and planning regulations. For the development of sustainable beach
tourism, conceptual sustainable design models including an array of acceptable capacities based on
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the ecological, social, psychological, physical, economic, and managerial capacity thresholds of sites
are necessary.
India is a land with a long coastline measuring over 6,700 km and washed by the Arabian Sea to the
west, the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. Flanking the Konkan/Malabar
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coast of Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka and Goa, are the Western Ghats. India is endowed with
several beautiful beaches, dotting its long coastline.
It has a lot of scope for the development of beach tourism. But, there has been a lack of awareness
about the benefits that it can bestow upon the host populations along the coastline. The host
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populations must support this tourism to bring a vibrant economic force. As India is at its infant stage
in beach tourism, an integrated approach is required to develop, promote and sustain beach tourism
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without any environmental and social impacts to the pristine beach environment.
India has a number of splendid beaches that offer a perfect scope for the development of ecotourism
h

(Table 2). The Beach of Puri, the finest beach of India, is a good spot for ecotourists because it is an
exciting place for viewing romantic sunset and sunrise and to watch dance and music festival that is
ic

held every year. Another beach, Gopalpur on Sea in Orissa, provides a unique opportunity to spend
precious moments away from the hustle and bustle of city life and it has been considered lately as a
perfect winter resort in India.
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Kovalam is a world-famous beach resort and a favourite haunt of tourists to India. It is situated in
Kerala. The beach is bordered with enchanting coconut and palm trees and impressively unique. Goa
beach is an ideal destination for people around the world, who seek fun and romance. Travellers from
around the world seek sand and sun and fun and wine here. The white sand carpets the shore and
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coconut palms and farmhouses impressively surround the beach.

Andamans is a chain of beautiful islands with exotic beaches and enormous beauty in the Bay of
Bengal that offers lots of scope for fun and festivity. Daman and Diu beaches are called twin beaches
and offer an ideal ambience with a perfect blend of sun, sand and sea. Despite the uniqueness of
beaches in India, they have not been properly managed and developed to promote ecotourism.

Q9. How have hills become tourism attractions? What are the impacts of tourism on mountain
environment?
Ans. Hills and mountains are unique ecosystems; their ecological and cultural attributes make them
favourite tourist destinations. As ‘zones of refugia’ they offer ideal conditions for the three R’s – rest,

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relaxation and recreation. They cater to the varied demands of a vast segment of society. Some of the
main reasons behind hill tourism are:
• Summer retreat – with their climatic and geo-morphic conditions they offer ideal summer
retreats from the scorching heat of the plains.
• Natural surroundings – confluence of various ecosystems; hills, forests, snow, rocks and
varied relief and ecological features attract naturalists, bio-scientists, academicians, poets,
sightseers, photographers.
• Pilgrimage centres – Some of the hill stations also happen to be major pilgrim centres thus

m
attracting huge tourist traffic. Vaishno Devi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri,
Yamunotri, are just a significant few.
• Mountain sports – like mountaineering, trekking as in Leh, skiing, ice skating (as in Kufri,

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Patnitop), helicopter skiing, river rafting (as in Manali), gliding etc. attract sports enthusiasts.
• Floral and faunal diversity – Wildlife and diversity of plant species make them ideal
destinations for wildlife lovers. Bioprospectors have of late become a significant tourist
component. Nanda Devi Sanctuary would be an example.
• Adventurists and Explorers – The mountaneous terrain often lure many adventurers or

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explorers. Wanderlust accounts for but a small proportion of tourist traffic.

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• Miscellaneous – factors would include recreation, leave after work, desire to visit friends,
relatives, honeymoons, etc.
Impacts of Tourism on Mountain Environment: While dealing with the impacts certain things
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should be borne in mind:
• Tourism does not necessarily have a negative impact, in many cases particularly in the
economic field, it promises a huge growth potential. Having said that any analysis of the
impacts has to be done with a long term agenda. In an strictly cost-benefit analysis the short
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term gains of tourism might be neutralised by long term losses.

• Environment primarily does connote the physical ecological environment but a
comprehensive analysis of the possible impacts would also involve treatment of the local
society and economy of the region. The impacts thus generated are overlapping, e.g.,
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ecological impact could well spill into the socio-cultural or economic impact.
• Generally speaking, however, it is the unrestrained mass tourism which leaves a trail of
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disasters. Eco-tourism or sustainable tourism on the contrary, are being projected as having
positive ramifications.
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• There are certain determinants (discussed subsequently) which influence the tourist-impact
relationship. Purpose, profile, duration, etc. condition the possible impacts of tourism on the
ic

local environment.
Impact Determinants: The impact of tourism on hills and mountains is to a great ext ent conditioned
by the following factors:
hr

• The number and duration of stay of the tourists; this is particularly true in the context of
‘mass’ or ‘exploitative’ tourism. Thus, the duration of stay in some cases becomes directly
proportional to the impact on local environment.
• The sphere of interests of the tourists: sports, relaxation, nature-watch, pilgrimage.
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• The fragility of the local environment, the accessibility of the region, the geo-morphological
features and the nature of terrain.
• The standard of living and the income of the tourists as well as the areas visited by the
tourists (e.g., socio-economic disparity).
• The extent and type of infrastructural facilities, i.e., transport, accommodation, etc.
• The tourists’ awareness of the socio-cultural and ecological environment and the resultant
behaviour.
• Existing government policies, regulations and guidelines
While discussing the impacts of tourism on mountain environment another thing that has to be borne
in mind is that the word mountain environment does not only connote the physical or the natural

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landscape, i.e., forests, rocks, ice, climate, but also the cultivated landscape (houses, villages, fields,
infrastructural facilities) and the people as well (behaviour, customs, traditions). The net impact of
tourism is different in different regions depending on the relative interplay of the factors discussed
above. Let us now discuss some major impacts of tourism, both direct and induced on the hills and
mountains. For the sake of convenience, let us divide these into three parts.
• Ecological impacts
• Socio-cultural impact
• Economic impact

m
Ecological Impacts: Tourism’s impact vis-à-vis physical environment has come in for a lot of debate.
People are becoming ecologically more conscious day by day. Many humanists and sociologists like
Elzeard Bouffier of France, Toyohiko Kagawa of Japan, Sunder Lal Bahuguna of India to name just

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very few have been raising environmental issues vigorously. Many reports, both national and
international have also come up documenting tourism’s impact on environment. The German Alpine
Club’s International Symposium in Munich (1983), and OECD Report on Impacts (1981) merely reflect
some early attempts in this direction.
Socio-Cultural Impacts: While dealing with socio-cultural impacts let us first discuss the mechanisms

.
of tourist-culture interface and then examine case studies if any. Local society and it’s customs

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constitute an important tourism resource. Village lifestyle, traditional ceremonies and religious
processions, arts and crafts are vigorously marketed by tourist organisations. There is, however,
much evidence to demonstrate that traditions and quality of life of the host society can be eroded by
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mass tourism. In one of the better known frameworks, Doxey has developed an irritation index which
traces the local community’s reaction, beginning with a level of euphoria associated with early tourist
arrivals through to antagonism when a place becomes saturated with tourists. Doxey suggests that
the level of irritation was correlated with the degree of compatibility between host community and
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the visitors, the location of tourist accommodation and how much the locals directly benefit through
employment and associated perks of the tourist industry. Also important in this regard is the
configuration of the tourists. Mass package holiday-makers demanding facilities and levels of service
matching metropolitan cities have little interest in understanding of local culture and history. Such
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tourists have little interaction with local residents. Studies have shown that tourism at many hill
stations has been accompanied by higher prices for craft goods, greed and crime in societies. In
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addition, the so-called demonstration effect involving the adoption by local residents, particularly
younger people, of aspects of tourist life styles, is becoming increasingly common. High levels of
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expatriate ownership and management, together with resort development that has created private
areas for tourists further alienates the local population receiving only limited benefits. Unregulated
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and insensitive tourism can also lead to dissolution of social cohesion, youth social conflicts,
criminality, prostitution and immorality in the host society. Loss of cultural identity promoting
commercialisation of tradition selling of antiques, vandalism and materialistic thinking also afflict the
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host society.
Tourism, however, also has a positive side when it comes to the host society. It entails behaviouristic
change in the host society when the residents seek to improve their ‘image’. It also, in many cases,
delays out migration and provides motivation for learning. Preservation of cultural monuments,
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rediscovery of lost traditions, promotion of current culture, training of new craftsmen and contact
with the outside world by way of infrastructure modernisation and urbanisation are other positive
entailments of tourism development. Let us now have a look at ‘Leh’ an important tourist destination
in order to get a better picture of the state of affairs.
Economic Impacts: Recreational tourism induces growth at three levels – national, regional and local,
although the quantum of this growth may be different at different levels. Let us have a look at some
of the possible mechanisms through which tourism affects the economy of a region.
a) Tourism related industries and employment potential: Tourism is not a single industry but
a loose confederation of number of these. It is usually classified in the tertiary sector, mainly a
service sector. Geographers call it a ‘landscape industry’ since the products of tourism are

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made of natural beauty, dramatic landscape and cultural heritage. The development of
various segments of tourist industry depends upon the importance and popularity of the
tourist places.
b) Income aspects and multiplier effect: Tourism circulates existing wealth among social
groups and geographic regions. The money spent by the tourists goes to the local business in
a number of ways. This money in turn is spent on provision of goods and services to the
tourists. Thus, through this multiplier effect one can explain the additional spending or job
creation caused by a given level of tourist expenditur e. However, the scope of multiplier

m
effect is greatly reduced because of various leakages in the form of import of foreign goods,
interest on foreign investments, etc.
c) Infrastructure and regional development: Tourism is an important mechanism to initiate

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and generate infrastructure development and improvement. The construction of roads,
railway lines, airports, electricity and gas supplies, sanitation, water supply etc. which are
mainly undertaken to attract the tourists benefit the local residents also by way of provision
of civic amenities. Besides, the development of infrastructure prepares the basis for
diversification of other economic activities. Thus, regional development is a natural corollary

.
of development of tourism in a region. Foreign exchange, taxi revenues, impetus to local arts,

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economic diversification – are other accompaniments of development of tourist destinations.

Q10. Write Short notes on the followings:

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(a) Code of Ethics
Ans. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism negotiated by the WTO on behalf of industry and NGOs
seeks an ethical framework for tourism services delivery. While the WTO and industry were
motivated by the desire for standardisation and assurance to the consumers that they are getting a
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fair deal, the NGOs were concerned with the nature of mass tourism and its impact on destinations
and host societies. They were also concerned with labour issues in the tourism industry and the
impacts on marginalized sections like women and children. The issues of ethics in tourism became an
issue after several anthropologists and sociologists published their case studies on the negative
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impacts of tourism, particularly in the third world. Whereas European researchers had researched the
consumer’s point of view, which had led to strict consumer protection laws in several countries,
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particularly Germany and France, it was American research that brought out the host side of the
problem. This was probably due to the resistance to back packers who had made a trail across the
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third world.
(b) Sources of Tourism Law.
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Ans. The existence of what we term as tourism laws today can be traced back in history from the most
ancient times in practically all the civilisations. Many ancient texts refer to traveller’s accommodation
and facilitation, laws about the functionings of sarais, state officials responsibilities towards travellers,
hr

tariffs, etc. However, today we have more complex laws that have emerged not only because of the
complex nature of the industry but also because of varied government attitudes, existence of varied
government departments, tourism awareness and so on. Tourism laws are derived from a variety of
sources. For example, in United States 51 different sources (states and federal government) contribute
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towards tourism law. These include federal and state constitutions, common law, administrative law,
treaties and statutes. Similarly, in India the Union list, Concurrent list and State list, all have elements
related to tourism though tourism is not specifically referred to anywhere. For example, emigration
laws, aviation, archaeological sites and monuments, shipping, highways etc. come under the union
list; protection of wild animals and birds, forests, etc. form part of the concurrent list whereas
domestic pilgrimage, theatres etc. form part of the state list. Different laws have come up at different
intervals of time as regards these themes.
There is no such law that encompasses all aspects of tourism though the demand for one has been
picking up. It has been argued in fact that “legislation on tourism seeks to define in clear
unambiguous terms the rights and responsibilities of its various segments vis-à-vis the user and

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viceversa and to provide for le gal protection of the rights and enforcements of the responsibilities
thus defined” (Mishra and Ravindran, 1998).
This means that practically all aspects related to tourism should be governed by one tourism
legislation. Currently, there are various legislations that directly or indirectly affect tourism. These
can be categorised under the following heads:
• Laws related to trans-border movements like customs, visa regulations, foreign exchange
regulations, immigration laws, etc.
• Laws related to transportation like airline regulations, railways, road and water transport;

m
fares and tariffs, etc.
• Laws related to accommodation like classification/grading/rating of hotels, etc.
• Consumer Protection Laws related to health, hygiene, service quality standards, etc.

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• Laws related to land use, infrastructure development, etc.
• Labour laws related to employees’ working conditions, wages, etc.
• Laws regarding the functioning of tourism organisations at various levels.
• Conservation related laws on environment protection, monuments and historical sites, etc.
• Laws related to human resource development.

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• Laws for regulating the service providers, etc.

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