You are on page 1of 117

Chapter 49

Sensory

PowerPoint Lectures for


Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Panorama general: Sentir y actuar

• El radar de los murciélagos detecta a sus presas


• Las polillas, una presa común para los
murciélagos, pueden detectar el sonar de los
murciélagos e intentar huir.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Ambos organismos tienen complejos sistemas
sensoriales que facilitan la supervivencia
• La detección y el procesamiento de la información
sensitiva y la generación de eferencias motoras
son la base fisiológica de todo el comportamiento
animal.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Concepto 49.1: Los receptores sensitivos transducen la energía
del estímulo y transmiten señales al sistema nervioso central.

• Las sensaciones son potenciales de acción que


alcanzan el cerebro a través de las neuronas
sensitivas.
• El cerebro interpreta sensaciones generando la
percepción de estímulos

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• Las sensaciones y percepciones comienzan con
la recepción sensitiva, la detección del estímulo
por los receptores sensitivos.
• Exteroreceptores detectan estímulos externos
• Interoreceptores detectan estímulos internos

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Funciones de los receptores sensitivos

• Todos los estímulos representan formas de


energía.
• La sensación implica convertir la energía en un
cambio en el potencial de membrana de los
receptores sensitivos produciendo un cambio en
la frecuencia de potenciales de acción
transmitidos al SNC.
• Funciones de los receptores sensoriales:
transducción sensitiva, amplificación, transmisión
e integración.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• El receptor de estiramiento en un cangrejo de río
es un ejemplo de un receptor sensorial

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-2a

Weak Strong
Muscle muscle stretch muscle stretch

Dendrites
–50 Receptor potential –50

potential (mV)
Membrane –70 –70
Stretch
receptor
Action potentials

0 0
Axon
–70 –70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Crayfish stretch receptors have muscles and dendrites stretch, producing a in the axon of the stretch receptor. A stronger
dendrites embedded in abdominal receptor potential in the stretch receptor. The stretch produces a larger receptor potential
muscles. When the abdomen bends, receptor potential triggers action potentials and higher frequency of action potentials.
• Otro receptor sensorial es la célula ciliada, que
detecta el movimiento en el oído de los
vertebrados y los sistemas lineales laterales de
los peces y anfibios

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-2b

“Hairs” of No fluid Fluid moving in Fluid moving in


hair cell movement one direction other direction
More
Neuro- neuro- Less
trans- trans- neuro-
mitter at mitter trans-
synapse mitter

Axon –50 –50 Receptor potential –50

potential (mV)
potential (mV)

potential (mV)

Membrane
Membrane

Membrane
–70 –70 –70

Action potentials

0 0 0

–70 –70 –70


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec) Time (sec) Time (sec)

Vertebrate hair cells have specialized cilia at a synapse with a sensory neuron, which neurotransmitter and increasing frequency of
or microvilli (“hairs”) that bend when conducts action potentials to the CNS. action potentials in the sensory neuron. Bending
surrounding fluid moves. Each hair cell Bending in one direction depolarizes the in the other direction has the opposite effects.
releases an excitatory neurotransmitter hair cell, causing it to release more Thus, hair cells respond to the direction of motion
as well as to its strength and speed.
Transducción sensitiva

• Transducción sensitiva es la conversión de la


energía del estímulo en un cambio en el potencial
de membrana de un receptor sensitivo
• Este cambio en el potencial de membrana se
conoce como potencial del receptor.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• Muchos receptores sensitivos son muy sensibles,
capaces de detectar la unidad física más pequeña
de estímulo, por ejemplo detectan un único fotón
de luz.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Amplificación

• La amplificación es la intensificación de la energía


del estímulo por las células de la vía sensitiva.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Transmisión

• Una vez que la energía de un estímulo ha sido


transducida en un potencial del receptor, algunas
células sensitivas generan potenciales de acción,
que se transmiten al SNC.
• Las células sensitivas sin axones liberan
neurotransmisores en las sinapsis con las
neuronas sensitivas.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Integración

• La integración de la información sensitiva


comienza cuando se recibe la información
• La integración se produce en todos los niveles del
sistema nervioso
• Algunos potenciales de receptor se integran a
través de la suma
• Otra integración es la adaptación sensitiva, es la
disminución de respuesta durante la estimulación
continua.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Tipos de receptores sensitivos

• En función de la energía que transducen, los


receptores sensitivos pertenecen a cinco
categorías:
– Mecanorreceptores
– Quimiorreceptores
– Receptores electromagnéticos
– Termorreceptores
– Receptores del dolor
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Mecanorreceptores

• Los mecanorreceptores detectan la deformación


física causada por estímulos como la presión, el
tacto,el estiramiento, el movimiento y el sonido.
• El sentido del tacto en los mamíferos depende de
mecanorreceptores que son las dendritas de las
neuronas sensitivas

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-3
Heat Light Pain Cold Hair
touch

Epidermis

Dermis

Hypodermis

Nerve Connective Hair Strong


tissue movement pressure
Quimiorreceptores

• Los quimiorreceptores son receptores generales


que transmiten información sobre la concentración
total de soluto de una solución
• Quimiorreceptores específicos responden a tipos
individuales de moléculas
• Las antenas de la polilla del gusano de seda
macho tienen quimiorreceptores específicos muy
sensibles a dos componentes químicos de la
feromona sexual de la polilla hembra.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-4

0.1 mm
Receptores electromagnéticos

• Los receptores electromagnéticos detectan


distintas formas de energía electromagnética,
como la luz visible, la electricidad y el
magnetismo.
• Algunas serpientes poseen receptores infrarrojos
muy sensibles que detectan el calor del cuerpo de
la presa contra un fondo más frío

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-5

Eye

Infrared
receptor

This rattlesnake and other pit vipers have a pair of infrared


receptors, one between each eye and nostril. The organs
are sensitive enough to detect the infrared radiation
emitted by a warm mouse a meter away.

Some migrating animals, such as these beluga whales,


apparently sense Earth’s magnetic field and use the
information, along with other cues, for orientation.
• Muchos mamíferos parecen utilizar las líneas de
campo magnético de la Tierra para orientarse a
medida que migran

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Termorreceptores

• Los termorreceptores, que responden al calor o al


frío, ayudan a regular la temperatura corporal al
indicar tanto la temperatura superficial como la
temperatura corporal central

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Receptores del dolor

• En los seres humanos, los receptores del dolor, o


nociceptores, forman una clase de dendritas
desnudas en la epidermis.
• Responden al exceso de calor, a la presión o
clases específicas de sustancias químicas
liberadas por los tejidos dañados e inflamados
(histamina, prostanglandinas)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Concepto 49.2: Los mecanorreceptores que intervienen en la audición y
en el equilibrio detectan las partículas que se depositan o el líquido en
movimiento.

• La audición y la percepción del equilibrio del


cuerpo se relacionan en la mayoría de los
animales

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Formas de sentir la gravedad y el sonido en los
invertebrados
• La mayoría de los invertebrados tienen órganos
sensoriales llamados estatocistos.
• Los estatocistos contienen mecanorreceptores y
funcionan en su sentido del equilibrio.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-6

Ciliated
receptor cells

Cilia

Statolith

Sensory
nerve fibers
• Muchos insectos tienen pelos en el cuerpo que
vibran en respuesta a las ondas sonoras.
• Muchos insectos también tienen “oídos”
localizados que consiste en una membrana
timpánica y células receptoras

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-7

Tympanic
membrane

1 mm
Audición y equilibrio en mamíferos

• En la mayoría de los vertebrados terrestres, los


órganos sensitivos de la audición y el equilibrio
están estrechamente asociados en el oído

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-8

Middle
Outer ear ear Inner ear

Stapes Semicircular canals


Middle Incus Skull bones
ear
Auditory nerve,
Malleus
to brain

Tympanic
Pinna Auditory membrane
canal Eustachian
tube

Oval Cochlea
window Round
Tympanic
membrane window

Eustachian tube
Tectorial
membrane

Hair cells
Bone
Cochlea duct
Auditory
Vestibular nerve
canal

Basilar Axons of To auditory Tympanic


membrane sensory neurons nerve canal
Organ of Corti
Audición

• Los objetos que vibran crean ondas de percusión


en el aire que causan que la membrana timpánica
vibre con la misma frecuencia que el sonido.
• Los tres huesos del oído medio transmiten las
vibraciones hasta la ventana oval, una membrana
situada sobre la superficie de la cóclea.
• Estas vibraciones crean ondas de presión en el
fluido de la cóclea que viajan a través del canal
vestibular hasta disiparse cuando golpean la
ventana redonda
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
LE 49-9

Cochlea

Stapes
Axons of
Vestibular sensory
canal neurons

Oval Perilymph
window
Apex

Base

Round Tympanic Basilar


window canal membrane
• Las ondas de presión en el canal provocan que la
membrana basilar vibre hacia arriba y hacia abajo
doblando sus células ciliadas, lo que determina
que los cilios se inclinen primero en una dirección
y luego en otra con cada vibración.
• Esta flexión de las células ciliadas despolariza sus
membranas, envíando potenciales de acción que
viajan a través del nervio auditivo al cerebro

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• La cóclea puede distinguir el tono porque la
membrana basilar no es uniforme en toda su
longitud
• Cada región vibra más vigorosamente a una
frecuencia particular y conduce a la excitación de
un área auditiva específica de la corteza cerebral

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-10

Cochlea
(uncoiled) Basilar
membrane Apex
(wide and
flexible)
500 Hz (low pitch)
1 kHz
2 kHz
4 kHz
8 kHz
16 kHz Frequency
(high pitch) producing
Base maximum vibration
(narrow and stiff)
Equilibrio

• Varios de los órganos del oído interno detectan la


posición corporal y el equilibrio: el utrículo, sáculo
y canales semicirculares.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-11

Semicircular canals
Ampulla
Flow
of endolymph
Flow
of endolymph
Vestibular nerve
Cupula
Hairs
Hair
cell
Vestibule
Nerve fibers
Utricle
Body movement
Saccule
Audición y equilibrio en otros vertebrados

• Al igual que otros vertebrados, los peces y los


anfibios acuáticos tienen oídos internos
localizados cerca del encéfalo.
• La mayoría de los peces y los anfibios también
tienen un sistema de línea lateral a lo largo de
ambos lados de su cuerpo.
• El sistema de línea lateral contiene
mecanorreceptores con células ciliadas que
detecta movimientos o vibraciones del agua.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-12
Lateral line

Lateral line canal


Scale Opening of
Epidermis Neuromast lateral line canal

Segmental muscles of body wall Lateral nerve

Cupula

Sensory
hairs

Supporting Hair cell


cell

Nerve fiber
Concepto 49.3: Los sentidos del gusto y del olfato están
estrechamente relacionados en la mayoría de los animales.

• El gusto y el olfato dependen de


quimiorreceptores que detectan sustancias
químicas específicas del ambiente.
• Los receptores del gusto de los insectos se
localizan en el interior de los pelos sensoriales
denominados sensilas, que se encuentran
ubicados en las patas y en el aparato bucal.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-13a

To brain

Chemoreceptors
Sensillum

Microelectrode

To voltage recorder

Pore at tip

Pipette containing
test substance
LE 49-13b

Number of action potentials


in first second of response Chemoreceptors

50

30

10
0
0.5 M Meat 0.5 M Honey
NaCl Sucrose
Stimulus
El gusto en los seres humanos

• En humanos, las células receptoras del gusto son


células epiteliales modificadas organizadas en
yemas gustativas (papilas) dispersas en la lengua
y la boca.
• Cinco percepciones gustativas: dulce, ácido,
salado, amargo y umami (producida por
glutamato)
• La transducción en los receptores gustativos se
desarrolla por varios mecanismos

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-14
Taste pore Sugar
molecule

Taste Sensory
bud receptor
cells

Sensory
Tongue neuron

Sugar G protein
Adenylyl cyclase
Sugar receptor

ATP

cAMP

Protein
kinase A

SENSORY
RECEPTOR
CELL K+
Synaptic
vesicle

Ca2+

Neurotransmitter

Sensory neuron
El olfato en seres humanos

• Las células receptoras olfativas son neuronas que


revisten la porción superior de la cavidad nasal.
• La unión de moléculas odoríferas a sus
receptores que desencadena una vía de
transducción de señales , generando potenciales
de acción hacia el cerebro

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-15

Brain
potentials
Action

Olfactory bulb

Nasal cavity
Bone
Odorant

Epithelial cell

Odorant
receptors Chemoreceptor

Plasma Cilia
membrane

Odorant Mucus
Concepto 49.4: La visión se basa en mecanismos
similares en todo el reino animal.

• Muchos tipos de detectores de luz han


evolucionado en el reino animal y pueden ser
homólogos.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Visión en Invertebrados

• La mayoría de los invertebrados tiene algún tipo


de órgano para detectar la luz.
• Uno de los más simples es el ocelo de las
planarias, proporciona información acerca de la
intensidad y la dirección de la luz pero no forma
imágenes.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-16

Light

Light shining from


the front is detected

Photoreceptor
Nerve to
brain
Visual pigment
Screening
pigment
Ocellus

Light shining from


behind is blocked
by the screening pigment
• Dos tipos principales de ojos formadores de
imagen han evolucionado en invertebrados: el ojo
compuesto y el ojo de lente única.
• Los ojos compuestos se encuentran en los
insectos y los crustáceos y se componen de hasta
varios miles de detectores de luz llamado
omatidios

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-17

Cornea

Crystalline Lens
cone

Rhabdom

Photoreceptor
Axons
2 mm

Ommatidium
• Entre los invertebrados, los ojos de lente única se
encuentran en algunas medusas, poliquetos,
arañas y muchos moluscos.
• Funciona con un principio similar al de una
cámara.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


El sistema visual de los vertebrados

• Los ojos de los vertebrados son como una


cámara, pero evolucionaron de forma
independiente y se diferencian de los ojos de
lente única de los invertebrados

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Estructura del ojo

• Componentes principales del ojo de los


vertebrados:
– Esclerótica: capa externa blanca, incluye la
córnea.
– Coroides: capa interna pigmenteda
– Conjuntiva: cubre la superficie externa de la
esclerótica
– Iris: regula la pupila
– Retina: contiene los fotoreceptores
– Cristalino: enfoca la luz sobre la retina
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
LE 49-18
Sclera Choroid
Retina
Ciliary body

Suspensory Fovea (center


ligament of visual field)

Cornea
Iris Optic
nerve
Pupil

Aqueous
humor

Lens
Central artery and
Vitreous humor vein of the retina

Optic disk
(blind spot)
• Los seres humanos y otros mamíferos enfocan la
luz al cambiar la forma del cristalino

Animation: Near and Distance Vision

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-19
Front view of lens
and ciliary muscle
Choroid Lens (rounder)

Retina

Ciliary
muscle

Suspensory
ligaments
Near vision (accommodation)

Lens (flatter)

Distance vision
• La retina humana contiene dos tipos de
fotorreceptores: bastones y conos
• Los bastones son sensibles a la luz pero no
distinguen colores
• Los conos distinguen colores pero no son tan
sensibles

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Transducción sensitiva en el ojo

• Cada bastón o cono contienen pigmentos visuales


que consisten en una molécula que absorbe la luz
denominados retinol unida a una proteína de
membrana denominada opsina.
• Los bastones contienen el pigmento visual
rodopsina, que cambia de forma al absorber la luz

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-20

Rod

Outer
segment

Disks

Cell body Inside


of disk cis isomer

Light Enzymes
Synaptic
terminal

Cytosol

Retinal
Rhodopsin
Opsin trans isomer
Procesamiento de la información visual

• El procesamiento de la información visual


comienza en la retina.
• La absorción de luz por la retina desencadena
una vía de transducción de señales

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-21

Light INSIDE OF DISK


Active EXTRACELLULAR
rhodopsin PDE FLUID

Membrane
Plasma potential (mV)
membrane 0
Dark Light
cGMP
Inactive Transducin Disk –40 Hyper-
rhodopsin membrane GMP polarization
Na+
–70
Time

CYTOSOL

Na+
• En la oscuridad, los conos y bastones se
despolarizan y liberan el neurotransmisor
glutamato en las sinapsis con las neuronas
llamadas células bipolares
• A la luz, los conos y bastones se hiperpolarizan,
inhibiendo la liberación de glutamato
• Células bipolares pueden tanto resultar
hiperpolarizadas como despolarizadas

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-22
Dark Responses Light Responses

Rhodopsin inactive Rhodopsin active

Na+ channels open Na+ channels closed

Rod depolarized Rod hyperpolarized

Glutamate No glutamate
released released

Bipolar cell either Bipolar cell either


depolarized or hyperpolarized or
hyperpolarized, depolarized,
depending on depending on
glutamate receptors glutamate receptors
• Otros tres tipos de neuronas contribuyen al
procesamiento de la información en la retina:
células ganglionares, células horizontales y
células amacrinas

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-23
Retina

Optic nerve

To
brain

Retina
Photoreceptors
Neurons
Cone Rod

Amacrine
cell Horizontal
cell
Optic
nerve Ganglion Bipolar Pigmented
fibers cell cell epithelium
• Las señales de los bastones y conos viajan de
células bipolares a las células ganglionares
• Los axones de las células ganglionares forman los
nervios ópticos, que transmiten sensaciones
desde los ojos al cerebro

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-24
Left Right
visual visual
field field

Left Right
eye eye

Optic nerve

Optic chiasm

Lateral
geniculate
nucleus

Primary
visual cortex
• La mayoría de los axones de las células
ganglionares conducen a los núcleos geniculados
laterales del tálamo.
• El tálamo envía información a la corteza visual
primaria
• Varios centros de integración en la corteza
cerebral están activos en la creación de las
percepciones visuales

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Concept 49.5: Animal skeletons function in
support, protection, and movement

• The various animal movements result from


muscles working against a skeleton

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Types of Skeletons

• The three main functions of a skeleton are


support, protection, and movement
• The three main types of skeletons are hydrostatic
skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Hydrostatic Skeletons

• A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under


pressure in a closed body compartment
• This is the main type of skeleton in most
cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids
• Annelids use their hydrostatic skeleton for
peristalsis, a type of movement on land produced
by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-25
Longitudinal Circular Circular Longitudinal
muscle relaxed muscle muscle muscle
(extended) contracted relaxed contracted

Bristles
Head
Exoskeletons

• An exoskeleton is a hard encasement deposited


on the surface of an animal
• Exoskeletons are found in most molluscs and
arthropods

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Endoskeletons

• An endoskeleton consists of hard supporting


elements, such as bones, buried in soft tissue
• Endoskeletons are found in sponges,
echinoderms, and chordates

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• A mammalian skeleton has more than 200 bones
• Some are fused; others are connected at joints by
ligaments that allow freedom of movement

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-26_6
Key
Head of
Axial skeleton humerus
Skull Examples
Appendicular
skeleton of joints
Scapula

Shoulder Clavicle
girdle
Scapula

Sternum
Ball-and-socket joints, where the humerus
Rib contacts the shoulder girdle and where the femur
Humerus contacts the pelvic girdle, enable us to rotate our
arms and legs and move them in several planes.
Vertebra

Radius
Ulna Humerus
Pelvic
girdle

Carpals

Ulna
Phalanges
Metacarpals Hinge joints, such as between the humerus
and the head of the ulna, restrict movement
to a single plane.
Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula
Ulna
Radius

Pivot joints allow us to rotate our forearm at the


elbow and to move our head from side to side.
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Physical Support on Land

• In addition to the skeleton, muscles and tendons


help support large land vertebrates

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Concept 49.6: Muscles move skeletal parts by
contracting
• The action of a muscle is always to contract
• Skeletal muscles are attached in antagonistic
pairs, with each member of the pair working
against each other

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-27
Human Grasshopper

Extensor
Biceps muscle
contracts relaxes Tibia
flexes

Flexor
muscle
Forearm contracts
Triceps
relaxes flexes

Biceps Extensor Tibia


relaxes muscle extends
contracts

Forearm
extends Flexor
Triceps muscle
contracts relaxes
Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle

• Vertebrate skeletal muscle is characterized by a


hierarchy of smaller and smaller units
• A skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long
fibers running parallel to the length of the muscle
• A muscle fiber is itself a bundle of smaller
myofibrils arranged longitudinally

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• The myofibrils are composed to two kinds of
myofilaments:
– Thin filaments consist of two strands of actin
and one strand of regulatory protein
– Thick filaments are staggered arrays of myosin
molecules

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle
because the regular arrangement of myofilaments
creates a pattern of light and dark bands
• Each unit is a sarcomere, bordered by Z lines
• Areas that contain the myofilments are the I band,
A band, and H zone

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-28
Muscle

Bundle of
muscle fibers
Single muscle fiber Nuclei
(cell)
Plasma membrane

Myofibril
Light Z line
band Dark band

Sarcomere

TEM 0.5 µm
I band A band I band
M line
Thick filaments
(myosin)

Thin filaments
(actin)
Z line H zone Z line
Sarcomere
The Sliding-Filament Model of Muscle Contraction

• According to the sliding-filament model, filaments


slide past each other longitudinally, producing
more overlap between thin and thick filaments
• As a result of sliding, the I band and H zone shrink

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-29
0.5 µm

Z
H
A I
Sarcomere
Relaxed muscle fiber

Contracting muscle fiber

Fully contracted muscle fiber


• The sliding of filaments is based on interaction
between actin and myosin molecules of the thick
and thin filaments
• The “head” of a myosin molecule binds to an actin
filament, forming a cross-bridge and pulling the
thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-30–4

Thick filament

Thin filaments

Thin filament
Myosin head (low-energy
configuration)

Thick
filament

Cross-bridge
Thin filament moves binding site
toward center of sacomere. Actin

Myosin head (low- Myosin head (high-


energy configuration) energy configuration)

Cross-bridge
The Role of Calcium and Regulatory Proteins

• A skeletal muscle fiber contracts only when


stimulated by a motor neuron
• When a muscle is at rest, myosin-binding sites on
the thin filament are blocked by the regulatory
protein tropomyosin

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-31
Tropomyosin Ca2+-binding sites
Actin Troponin complex

Myosin-binding sites blocked.

Ca2+

Myosin-
binding site

Myosin-binding sites exposed.


• For a muscle fiber to contract, myosin-binding
sites must be uncovered
• This occurs when calcium ions (Ca2+) bind to a set
of regulatory proteins, the troponin complex

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• The stimulus leading to contraction of a muscle
fiber is an action potential in a motor neuron that
makes a synapse with the muscle fiber

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-32
Motor
neuron axon Mitochondrion

Synaptic
terminal

T tubule

Sarcoplasmic Ca2+ released


reticulum from sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Myofibril
Sarcomere

Plasma membrane
of muscle fiber
• The synaptic terminal of the motor neuron
releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
• Acetylcholine depolarizes the muscle, causing it to
produce an action potential

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• Action potentials travel to the interior of the muscle
fiber along transverse (T) tubules
• The action potential along T tubules causes the
sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca2+
• The Ca2+ binds to the troponin-tropomyosin
complex on the thin filaments
• This binding exposes myosin-binding sites and
allows the cross-bridge cycle to proceed

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-33
Synaptic terminal
of motor neuron PLASMA
Synaptic cleft T TUBULE MEMBRANE

ACh SR

Ca2+

CYTOSOL
Ca2+
Neural Control of Muscle Tension

• Contraction of a whole muscle is graded, which


means that the extent and strength of its
contraction can be voluntarily altered
• There are two basic mechanisms by which the
nervous system produces graded contractions:
– Varying the number of fibers that contract
– Varying the rate at which fibers are stimulated

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• In a vertebrate skeletal muscle, each branched
muscle fiber is innervated by one motor neuron
• Each motor neuron may synapse with multiple
muscle fibers

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-34
Spinal cord
Motor Motor
unit 1 unit 2

Synaptic terminals

Nerve

Motor neuron
cell body

Motor neuron
axon

Muscle

Muscle fibers

Tendon
• A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and
all the muscle fibers it controls
• Recruitment of multiple motor neurons results in
stronger contractions
• A twitch results from a single action potential in a
motor neuron
• More rapidly delivered action potentials produce a
graded contraction by summation

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-35

Tetanus
Tension

Summation of
two twitches

Single
twitch

Time
Action
potential Pair of Series of action
action potentials at
potentials high frequency
• Tetanus is a state of smooth and sustained
contraction produced when motor neurons deliver
a volley of action potentials

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Types of Muscle Fibers

• Skeletal muscle fibers are classified as slow


oxidative, fast oxidative, and fast glycolytic
• These categories are based on their contraction
speed and major pathway for producing ATP

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Other Types of Muscle

• Cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, consists


of striated cells electrically connected by
intercalated discs
• Cardiac muscle can generate action potentials
without neural input

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


• In smooth muscle, found mainly in walls of hollow
organs, contractions are relatively slow and may
be initiated by the muscles themselves
• Contractions may also be caused by stimulation
from neurons in the autonomic nervous system

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Concept 49.7: Locomotion requires energy to
overcome friction and gravity

• Movement is a hallmark of all animals and usually


necessary for finding food or evading predators
• Locomotion is active travel from place to place

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Swimming

• Overcoming friction is a major problem for


swimmers
• Overcoming gravity is easier for swimmers than
for animals that move on land or fly

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Locomotion on Land

• Walking, running, hopping, or crawling on land


requires an animal to support itself and move
against gravity
• Diverse adaptations for locomotion on land have
evolved in vertebrates

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Flying

• Flight requires that wings develop enough lift to


overcome the downward force of gravity

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Comparing Costs of Locomotion

• The energy cost of locomotion depends on the


mode of locomotion and the environment
• Animals specialized for swimming expend less
energy per meter traveled than equivalently sized
animals specialized for flying or running

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


LE 49-37

Flying
Running
102
Energy cost (J/kg/m)

10

1
Swimming
10–1

10–3 1 103 106


Body mass (g)
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

You might also like