MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY.

SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES.

2021/2022 ACADEMIC.

NAME: PHERIDA FRIDAH BANDA

STUDENT NUMBER:201901607

COURSE CODE: BIO362

COURSE: PARASITOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT NUMBER: TWO (2)

LECTURER’S NAME: MS. MUNSAKA

DUE DATE: 15TH APRIL, 2022.

TASK:
1. Describe structural adaptations of metazoans to parasitic life

2. Explain the factors affecting distribution of parasitic protozoa, helminths, and

arthropods.

Metazoan is a group of Metazoa that comprises all multicellular eukaryotic organelles or

animals having the body composed of cells differentiated into tissues and organs and usually a

digestive cavity lined with specialized cells . Metazoan animals are heterotrophic; they

consume other organisms or the products of other organisms because they cannot produce their

own energy. Metazoan parasites comprise a polyphyletic group made up of six parasitic

taxa: flatworms (Platyhelminthes), tapeworms (cestodes), trematodes (flukes),

roundworms (nematodes), acanthocephalans, and crustaceans. These organisms have

adapted to their parasitic life in various forms such as;

Physiological adaptation which involves their ability to secrete or release anti digestive

enzymes which protects them from digestive enzymes of the host. Metazoans also undergo

anaerobic respiration which makes it possible for parasites to survive environment that oxygen

deficient like the intestinal lumen. Parasites also exhibit the property of chemotaxis which is the

movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus. Single-cell or multicellular

organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. Parasites

also exhibit huh reproduction capacity that is the reproductive potential is greater than in the

parasites than that of the host. Parasites have the capacity to produce large numbers of eggs to

compensate wastage that occurs during transfer from one host to another. Their fertility is also

high for example Helminths parasites. With complex life cycle which is completed, most of the

time in two hosts. Potential offspring face several hazards as a result a very small percentage of

the total eggs produced reach adulthood. This threat to the very existence of species is suitably

met by the parasites which in its life time may produce eggs in millions.

Metazoans also have morphological adaptations suck as hooks and suckers that have helped
them to attach to the host body organs and prevents them from being pushed out. Hooks are

short, curved, hardened structures that protrude from the surface of a parasite. They are

usually numerous and aid attachment by penetrating host tissues. Their curvature provides

tremendous anchoring power. They are often under muscular control. Parasites also have an

integument which is an outer protective covering of organisms’ body and a tough outer

protective layer, especially that of an animal or plant. So these The parasitic flukes have a

relatively thick integument, which bears many spines and sensory papillae, an apical

membrane that is thrown into ridges and pits, and microvilli. The outer part of the integument

contains secretory bodies, which are continuously released at the surface to renew the apical

membrane. Parasites also have muscular pharynx for example nematodes were the head of a

nematode has a few tiny sense organs, and a mouth opening into a muscular pharynx (throat)

where food is pulled in and crushed. This leads into a long simple gut cavity lacking any

muscles, and then to an anus near the tip of the body.

There are some parasites which have a flattened body which is the shape of a flatworm

allows the species to survive without a circulation system. The purpose of circulation is to

deliver oxygen and remove waste from cells throughout the body, specifically the cells

furthest from the surface. There is neither a circulatory nor respiratory system, with gas and

nutrient exchange dependent on diffusion and cell-cell junctions. This necessarily limits the

thickness of the body in these organisms, constraining them to be “flat” worms. Parasites also

have a thick cuticle which helps them in various ways such this cuticle is a multi-functional

exoskeleton. It is a highly impervious barrier between the animal and its environment. It is

essential for maintenance of body morphology and integrity, and has a critical role in

locomotion via attachments to body-wall muscles. It also functions by permitting locomotion

via attachment to muscle, confers environmental protection and allows growth by molting. It

is synthesized five times, once in the embryo and subsequently at the end of each larval stage

prior to molting. Parasites also exhibit or have thick egg shells thick eggshell may protect the

parasitic egg by preventing other parasitic females from removing or damaging previously

laid eggs in species that multiply parasitized host nests such as the cowbirds, Clamator

cuckoos, and honeyguides.

 Metazoans get readily available food which is digested or semi digestive food of the host,

so they do not have elongated glands and digestive system. In case of nematodes there’s a

continuous supply of food as a result the alimentary tract is simply without provision for

storage. Pseudocoelomic fluid serves for absorption, transportation and distribution of food,

oxygen and wastes therefore the circulatory system is also abs

Parasites are found in various environments and this is determined by various temperature,

availability of food, chemistry between then and the environment and many more. An

increase in temperature affects the life cycles of parasites such as Protozoa in were

temperature can directly affect how prevalent the organism is within the area, considering

many parasitic organisms have a temperature-dependent developmental baseline, either within

their host or in the environment. Low temperatures also affect the rate of growth,

development and metabolism of parasites and when temperatures fall below 0 degrees C may

expose the parasite to the potentially lethal risk of freezing. Multicellular organisms such as

parasites and their eggs and spores may be killed by freezing as long as they are frozen under

ideal conditions. Specifically, parasites must be frozen at 20 degrees Celsius for a minimum

of seven days.
 Other factors such as availability food also determine the distribution of parasites as they

depend on readily available digested or semi digested therefore they can only survive off this

benefit they obtain from their host and can be wiped out if their host die, therefore a reduction

in host bodies will also determine or affect the distribution of parasites. Anthropogenic factors

which are associated with food or Supplementary feeding in large herbivore management,

supplementary feeding is mainly intended to reduce herbivore impact on agriculture, to

enhance body condition and reproductive performance, or to supply endangered animals with

food or water in crucial periods of their annual life cycle. However, it is known that

supplementary feeding may have negative long-term effects on wildlife populations,

including increasing parasite transmission in wild boar, European bison, and other wild

mammals. 

Another fact that affect distribution of parasites is that some parasites have no

locomotory organs hence they settle in organs where they can easily access the food like

intestinal organs where they can easily access food. Another factor affecting the distribution

of parasites is age as the eel of infection is associated with a host’s age. However, young and

sub adult animals with immature immune systems are most susceptible to infection and

disease and spread a higher number of infective eggs into the environment through their feces.

This could be a result of short exposure time of the host to the parasite as well as availability

of maternal antibodies, which provide immunological protection. Breastfed, young mammals

should be better protected against diseases because they get maternal antibodies with milk.

This is not always true, because some parasites, for example oxocara can be transmitted to

puppies and kittens with the mother’s milk, and during pregnancy through the placenta. By

adulthood, animals have usually developed a stronger immunity and harbor lower

infection levels (Cornell et al. 2008)

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1989.

4. Peters W, Gilles HM. Color Atlas of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 4 th Edition.

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