Assignment No: 02

Topic: Cestodes
Submitted to: Dr. Khalid hameed
Submitted by: Kaynat Tanveer
Roll no: FA18-MZO-012
Department: Zoology
Definition:
Commonly known as tapeworms, cestodes are a type of parasitic worm that can
be found in the gastrointestinal tract of their hosts (definitive hosts) .As compared
to other parasitic worms, cestodes are characterized by a long, flat body (ribbon-
like) that can grow to over 20 meters in length depending on the species. They are
also characterized by a segmented body that plays an important role in their life
cycle.

Classification:

Kingdom Animalia:

As members of kingdom Animalia, Cestodes are multicellular organisms. They are

also heterotrophs that are capable ual reproduction.

Domain eukarya:

 Like other members of the Domain Eukaryota, Cestodes are characterized by cells
that contain membrane-bound organelles.

Phylum platyhelminthes:

The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of acoelomate flatworms that may or may

not be segmented. Some are free-living flatworms while a majority exist as
parasites (internal parasites or ectoparasites) or various animals.

Class: cestoda

General characteristics:
Structure:
scolex is the anterior part of cestodes. It's a specialized segment that consists of
hooks and suckers that anchor the parasite to the walls of the small intestine. On
the scolex, the hooks (which vary in number from one species to another)
protrude from a muscular structure known as the rostellum. This structure has
been shown to be retractable, capable of protruding and retracting into a small
pouch known as the rostellar pouch. 
While some species have both hooks and suckers on their scolex (e.g. Taenia
solium which has between 22 and 32 hooks and four suckers), others do not
have a rostellum (and thus hooks) and therefore have to rely on suckers to
attach onto the walls of the small intestine in order to continue absorbing
nutrients. For other species, like catfish tapeworms, the ovoid suckers are
also used to cling onto fish given that they do not have hooks.  By
comparing the structure of the scolex, presence or absence of hooks etc, it's
possible to distinguish different types of cestodes.

Neck:
The neck of a cestode is the thin segment that is immediately attached to the
scolex. According to recent findings, fragmentation of cestodes is influenced by
signals operating in the neck region. Through these signals, stem cells in the body
of the organism are activated resulting in fragmentation. 
Proglotidds:
Proglottids are individual segments of the cestodes attached to the neck region.
As the parasite grows, the number of proglottids increase allowing the organism
as a whole to grow to several meters in length (the length is dependent on the
species).Together, these segments make up the strobilus. A mature proglottid
contains both male and female reproductive organs and is therefore capable of
reproduction. Those closest to the scolex are the youngest segments (and thus
immature) while those located further away from the scolex are the mature ones
(ready for fragmentation). Also known as gravid segments, these proglottids are
filled with eggs.  cestodes do not have a gut (as well as a mouth). They also lack a
body cavity and are therefore acoelomate. While they lack a mouth and digestive
system, cestodes simply absorb nutrients through their surface membrane.

Etiology :

Adult tapeworms are found in the intestinal tracts of their definitive, or final,

hosts. Each adult tapeworm consists of a head (scolex), which attaches the
tapeworm to the intestinal wall, neck, and various numbers of segments,
developing from the neck region. As new segments are formed at the neck, older
segments are pushed back. Tapeworms are hermaphroditic; each segment has
two sets of male and female reproductive organs, which will fill the segment with
fertile eggs as the segment is pushed back from the neck. When the segment is
full of eggs, it detaches itself from the adult tapeworm and is passed in the faeces.
Life cycle:
All tapeworms (cestodes) cycle through 3 stages—eggs, larvae, and adults.
Adults inhabit the intestines of definitive hosts, mammalian carnivores. Several
of the adult tapeworms that infect humans are named after their main
intermediate host:

 The fish tapeworms (members of the family Diphyllobothriidae)

 The beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata)
 The pork tapeworm (Taenia solium)
An exception is the Asian tapeworm (Taenia asiatica), which is similar to T.
saginata in many respects, but it is acquired by eating pork in Asia.
Eggs laid by adult tapeworms living in the intestines of definitive hosts are
excreted with feces into the environment and ingested by an intermediate host
(typically another species), in which the eggs hatch into larvae, which develop,
enter the circulation, and encyst in the musculature or other organs. When the
intermediate host is eaten raw or undercooked, the parasites are released from
the ingested cysts in the intestines and develop into adult tapeworms in the
definitive host, restarting the cycle. With some cestode species (eg, T. solium),
the definitive host can also serve as an intermediate host; that is, if eggs rather
than tissue cysts are ingested, the eggs develop into larvae, which enter the
circulation and encyst in various tissues.
Infections of cestodes:
Taenia solium eggs can also cause cysticercosis.
Life Cycle:

Taeniasis is the infection of humans with the adult tapeworm of Taenia

saginata or Taenia solium. Humans are the only definitive hosts for T.
saginata and T. solium. Eggs or gravid proglottids are passed with feces 1. the
eggs can survive for days to months in the environment. Cattle (T. saginata) and
pigs (T. solium) become infected by ingesting vegetation contaminated with eggs
or gravid proglottids. 2. In the animal’s intestine, the oncospheres hatch 3, invade
the intestinal wall, and migrate to the striated muscles, where they develop into
cysticerci. A cysticercus can survive for several years in the animal. Humans
become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat 4. In the human
intestine, the cysticercus develops over 2 months into an adult tapeworm, which
can survive for years. The adult tapeworms attach to the small intestine by their
scolex 5 and reside in the small intestine 6. Length of adult worms is usually 5 m
or less for T. saginata (however it may reach up to 25 m) and 2 to 7 m for T.
solium. The adults produce proglottids which mature, become gravid, detach from
the tapeworm, and migrate to the anus or are passed in the stool (approximately
6 per day). T. saginata adults usually have 1,000 to 2,000 proglottids, while T.
solium adults have an average of 1,000 proglottids. The eggs contained in the
gravid proglottids are released after the proglottids are passed with the feces. T.
saginata may produce up to 100,000 and T. solium may produce 50,000 eggs per
proglottid respectively.
Prevention and control:

To prevent cysticercosis, the following precautions should be taken:

 Wash your hands with soap and warm water after using the toilet, changing
diapers, and before handling food
 Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection
 Wash and peel all raw vegetables and fruits before eating
 Use good food and water safety practices while traveling in developing
countries such as:
o Drink only bottled or boiled (1 minute) water or carbonated (bubbly)
drinks in cans or bottles
o Filter unsafe water through an “absolute 1 micron or less” filter AND
dissolve iodine tablets in the filtered water; “absolute 1 micron”
filters can be found in camping and outdoor supply stores.

Treatment:
Oral medicine:

 To get rid of intestinal tapeworms, oral medicine (such as praziquantel) and

laxatives may be prescribed. Whereas oral medicine dissolve or kill the
parasite, laxatives help excrete them from the small intestine. 

 Steroids - Anti-inflammatory steroids are used to mitigate the symptoms

caused by infections outside the intestines. 

 Surgery - Surgery is recommended in the case of life-threatening cysts. In

particular, surgeries are carried out when vital organs are compromised to
prevent further complications.