Shielded Metal Arc Equipment, Setup, and Operation OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to ‘m= describe the process of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). list and define the three units used to measure a welding current. ‘ell how adding chemicals to the coverings of the electrodes affects the arc discuss the three different types of current used for welding. ‘explain the types of welding power supplies and which type t! requires. 1= define open circuit voltage and operating voltage. ‘= explain arc blow, what causes it, and howto controlit. = tell what the purpose of a welding transformer is and what kind of change occurs ta the voltage and amperage with a step-down transformer. = compare generators and alternators. = tell the purpose of a rectifier. ‘= read a welding machine duty cycle chart and explain its significance. ‘= demonstrate how to determine the proper welding cable size. ‘= demonstrate how to service and repair electrode holders, = discuss the problems that can occur as a result of poor work lead clamping = describe the factors that should be considered when placing an arc welding machine in a welding area. shielded metal arc welding process KEY TERMS ‘amperage ‘magnetic fuxlines voltage ‘anode open circuit voltage wattage cathode operating voltage welding cables ‘duty cyete output welding leads electrons rectifier inverter step-down transformer sv52 INTRODUCTION shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a welding process that uses a fhax-covered metal electrode to carry am electri cal current, Figure 31, The current forms an ars across the gap between the end of the electrode and the work. The electric arc creates sulfcient heat to melt both the electrode and the work. Molien metal from the electrode travels across the arc to the molten pool on the base metal, where they mix together The end of the electrode and mol- ten pool of metal is surrounded, purified, and protected by 2 gaseous clood and a covering of molten flux produced: as the flux coating ofthe electrode burns or vaporizes. As the are moves away, the mixture of molten electrode and thase metal solidifies and becomes ome piece. At the same time, the molten flux solidifies, frming.a solid slag. Some electrode types produce heavier sag covers than others SSMAW is a-widely used welding process hecause ofits tow cot eat, poral, and versal, The ma. chine and the electrodes are low in cost. The machine aself canbe assimple asa 11G-volt, step-down transformer. The slectrodes are available from a large number of manufac tures in packages from 1 1b (05 kg) to 30 fb (22 kg. ‘The SMAW process is very versatile hecause the same ‘SMA.welding machine can be used to makea wade variety of weld joint designs in a wide vanety of metal types and thicknesses, andl in all pesitions- + Joint designs—In addition to the standard butt, lap, tee, and outside comer joints, at sme time SMAW. has been certified to be used to weld every possible joint design * Metal ypes—Although mild steel is the most com- ly welded metal, a wide vaticty of electrode types allow SMA to be used to weld and handlace almost any metal or alloy, inchuding cast iron, ahumi- ‘mum, stainkes steel, and nickel + etal thickness—Metal as thin as 16; tnaey 1/16 im (2 mm) nck up to acral cam be SMA welded. ppproxi- et thick, FIGURE 3-1 Shickied metal arc welding. ap 21a Lent A Rafer Roc mck ee tie pt teh hd py te Nr ea ek meet pe aed sha aa rl ea Sa mera ae ol Hoan ee oa unearned i tate eh eo Section 2 Shicided MetalArc Welding + All positions —the flar welding position is the easi- est and most productive because large welds ean be ‘made fast using SMA welding, but the process can be used tomake welds in any position. SMAW isa very portable process because itis easy to ‘move the equipment, and engine-driven generator-type welders are available Also, the limited amount of equip- ‘ment required for the process makes moving easy. WELDING CURRENT The source of heat for arc welding is an electric current An electric current isthe low of electrons. Electrons flow through a conductor from negative (-) to positive (+), Figure 3-2. Resistance to the flow of electrons (electricsy) produces heat. The greater the resistance, the greater the heat. Air has a high resistance to current flow. As the elec trons jump the air gap hetween the end of the electrode and the work, a great deal of heat is produced. Electrons flowing across an air gap produce an arc ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT ‘hive units are used to describe any electrical curent. The three units are voltage (¥), amperage (AD, and wattage (W) * Voltage, or volts {V}, is the measurement of electr- cal pressure in the same way that pounds per square ‘inch ts a measurement of water pressure. Voliage controls the maximum gap the electrons can jump 10 form the are. A higher voltage can jump a large gap. ‘Welding voltage is associated with the welding arcs termpersture = Amperage, or amps (A), isthe measurement of the total number of electrons flowing, im the same ‘way thal gallons is a measurement of the amount of water Flowing, Amperage comtrols the size of the arc. Amperage is associated with the welding are’s beat = Wattage, or watts (WW), is a measurement of the amount of electrical energy or power in the arc ‘Wattsare calculated by multiplying voltage (V) times, amperes (A), Figure 3-3. Watts are the welding arc's power or how much energy the arc is producing Figure 3-4 Temperature and Heat ‘The term temperature refers ta the degree orlevel of thermal energy in a matcral and can be measured in degrees with athermonscter. The term heat refers tothe quantity af ther mal energy im a material and cannot Be easily measured Temperature and heat are to some degree related to cach ther, bur they cam change independently. For exarnple, ‘the small. red-hot spark from a grinder and a red-hot weld‘Chapter 3. Shiekded Metal Ae Equipment, Setup and Operation BICOWATTS PRODUCE A FAGURE 3-4 The molten weld poo! size depencls on tha ‘energy (watts), the metal mass, and thermal conductivity ars both at the some temperature, but the weld has more ‘heat. So the quantity of heat im a material isa function of both its temperature and its weight (mass) Another cxam- ple is a match and a bonfire: both are burning at the same OF AN ATOM PATH OF ELECTRONS temperature, but the burning maich daes mot produce the same quantity of heat as the bonfite. Likewise, the tem- perature of an arc from both a small diameter electrode and a large diameter electrode is the same, but the larger arc has more heat SMA Welding Arc Temperature ‘An arc'stemperaturcisdependent on the veltage, arc length, and the atmosphere (jas or vapor) itis passing through. “The are temperature cam range from approximately 5300°F (3000°C} to more than 36,000"F (20,000°C), fut most SMA welding arcs have effective temperatures of approxi- rately L1,000°F (6100°C). The voliage and arc lengih are closely related because as the arc length increases, the arc resistance increases; therelore, it takes a higher volt- fag: (pressure) to keep the electrons flowing (jumping) across the gap. The shorier the are, the lower the arc’ re- sistance and the lower the arc’s voltage and the lower the temperature produced: as the arc lengthens, the resistance increases, thus causing an increase in the arc voltage and temperature. Most shielded metal arc welding electrodes have chem- icals added to their coverings to stabilize the are. These arc stabilizers form conductive tons (gas or vapors) that make the are more stable and reduce the are resistance. This rakes it easier to hold an arc. By lowering the resistance the are stabilizers also lower the arc temperature. Chang- ing the chemicals in the electrode flux wall cause changes within the gaseous cloud around the are. These changes ray raise or lower the resistance, thus raising or lowering the welds temperature and eat ap 01" Cn Laman Ae Rot ty et bce sre eg np cht em dm ha ck mr aps dared ret dh a pen en 3 Reval sede Pardee gone ne toed oe Hest e no Eatee a teFIGURE 3-5 Eneray is lost from the weld in the form of radiation and convection ‘SMA Welding Arc Heat ‘The amount of heat produced by the arc is determined by the armperage: The higher the aruperage setting, the higher the heat produced by the welding arc; the lower the ampes- tage setting, the lower the heat produced, Each electrode diameter has a recommended minimum and maximum am- [perage range and, therefore, a recommended heat range. tf you were tolry to pat taomany amps through asmall dizm- er electra, it would ovetheat and could even melt the amperage setting i tos low for an electrode dismeter, then the end ofthe electrode may not melt evenly if a al ‘Noe all of the heat hy an are reaches the weld Some of the heats radiated away im the form of light amd heat weaves, Figure 3-5. Some aldiional heat iccarred away with the hot ass formed by the cletrade covering. Heat is alsa Jost through conduction in the work. In total, approsimaicly 50% of all heat produced by an ar is missing frm the weld olf of the remaining heat that the are produces is nat distribused evenly between both ends of the atc. This dis- trtton dosent on the eumpoekion ol de cect coating and type of welding current Types of Welding Currents ‘The three differen types of current used for welding are alternating current (AC), direct-current electrode negative (DCEN), and direct-current clectrode positive (DCEP), The terms DCEN and DCEP have replaced the former terms dircctocurrent straight polarity (OCSP) and directcurrent re= verse polarity (DCRP). DCEN and DCSP are the sarne cur rents, and DCEP and DCRP are the same currents. Some electrodes can be used with only one type of current. Oth- ers can be used with two or more types of current. Each welding current has a different effect om the weld. CEN In ditect-current clecirode negative, the electrode ‘is megative and the works positive, Figure 3-6. The elec- trons are leaving the electrode and traveling across the arc to the surface of the metal being welded. This results in ap- ‘proximately one-third of the welding heai on the electrade sand two-thirds on the metal being welded. DCEN welding current produces a high electrode melting rate CEP tn direct-current electinde positive, the electrode is positive and the work is negative, Figure 3-7 The electrons pee Cnn aan A in Rend ty tcc eed ie ne a et ee ccm ed ey rd i eek ae hare tegen eens mamraicis ml Cmaps ing Eragon na sl nwt eens her mar en Section2: Shielded Meta! Arc Weiding FIGURE 3.6 Electtode negstive [DCEN), straight ppalarty DCSP} FIGURE 2-7 Beeteda postive [DCEP, reverse polamty DCRPY are leaving the surface ofthe metal being welded and tra¥- cling across the arcto the electrode. This resus in appre- imaiely two-thirds ofthe welding heaton the electrode and ‘one-third on the metal being welded AC im alternating current, the electrons change diree- tion every 1/120 of a second so that the electrode and ‘work alternate from anode to cathode, Figure 3-8. The positive side of an electrode arc is called the anode, and the negative side is called the cathode. The rapid reversal ‘of the current Mow causes the welding heat to be evenly sistribuied on both the work and the clectrode— that is, ‘halfom the work and half on the electrode. The even heat- ing gives the weld bead balance between penetration and buildup, Figure 3-9Chapter’ Shielded Metal Arc Equipment Setup and Operation FIGURE 3-8 AC sion wave FIGURE 3-9 Alternating current (AC) TYPES OF WELDING POWER SUPPLIES (MACHINES) ‘Welding power can be supplied as ‘= Constant woltage (CV}—The are voltage remains ‘consiant atthe selecied seting even ifthe arc ength ‘and amperage increase or decrease ‘= Rising arc voltage (RAV)—The are voliage increases asthe amperage increases * Constant current (CC}—The total welding current (watts) remains the same- This type of power is also called drooping arc voliage (DAV) because the arc ‘voltage decreases asthe amperage mcreases. ‘The shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process requires a constant current arc voltage characteristic, illustrated by the constant current line in Figure 3410, CONSTANT CURRENT LINE. FOR SHAW A STAW 2 ‘99 88 WOO 102 Wo4 Tos TOR TO Te AMPERAGE FIGURE 2-10 Constant votage (CV) and constant curent (CCL ne The shielded metal are welding machine's vollage output decreases as current increases, This output power source provides 4 reasonably high open circuit voltage before the arc is struck. The high open circuit voltage quickly sta- bilizes the arc. The ars volage rapidly drops to the lower closed circuit level after the arc is struck. Following this short starting surge, the power (waits) remains almost con- stant despite the changes in arc length. With a constant voltage output, small changes im are length would cause the power (watts) 10 make large swings The welder would Jase contro ofthe weld Open Circuit Voltage Open circuit voltage isthe voltage at the electrode befre striking an are (with no. current being drawn). The open circuit vohage is much lnke the higher surge of pressure you might observe when a water hase nozzle is fist opened, Figure 3-114 and Figure 3-11B. I s easy to see that the initial pressure from the parcen hose was higher than the pressure of the continuous flow of water. The open circuit peg ing a er rma gd dal el ctr no hd nd i ek ae {Sec asc nts hu otc Cond onmaeam Ara ohaeh aie oat wae tera oneFIGURE 2-11 (A) Closed circuit pressure, (Bt intial pressure ‘urge, and (C) closed cicut pressure, vollage is usually between 30 V and 80 V. The higher the open cincuit voltage, the easier it isto strike an arc hecause ofthe initial higher voltage pressure Operating Voltage Operating, welding, or closed circuit wotage is the vol- ge at the are during welding. Operating voltage is much Tike the water pressure observed as the water hose is being, Section2: Shickied Metal re Welding used, Figure JIC. The operating voltage will vary with arclengyh, typeof electrode heing used, type of current, and polarity. The welding voltage wall he between 17 V and 40 V. Arc Blow When electrons flow, they create limes of magnetic force that circle arcund the path of flow, Figure 3-12. These lines of magnetic force are referred to as magnetic Thx limes, They space themsehves evenly along 2 current- carrying wire- If the wire is bent, then the flux fines on fone side are compressed together, and those on the other side are stretched out, Figure 3-13 The unevenly spaced flux hines try to straighien the wire sothat the lines can be cevenly spaced once again. The force that they place om the ‘wire is usually small, so the wire does mot move. However, when welding with very high amperages, 600 amperes oF ‘more; the force may actually eause the wine to move. “The welding current flowing through a plate or any resid ual magnetic fields the plate will result in unevenly spaced ‘magnetic ux lines. These uneven flux lines can, in burn cause the arc between the elecrade and the work to move during welding. The term an How refers to this movement of thea, Arc blow makes the are driftlike astring woul! dif inthe wind. Arc blow can be more of 3 problem when the ‘magnetic firs are the most uneven, such as when they are ‘concentrated in comers, at the ends of plates, and when the ‘work lead is connected to only one side of plate, Figure 3-14 ‘The more complexaweldment becomes, the more likly are blow will become a problem, Complex weldments can distort the magnetic Ines of flux in unexpected ways. Ifyou encounter severe arc blow during a weld, stop welding and take comective measures o control or reduce the ar blow: Controliing Are Blow Ar blow can be controlled cr reduoed bby connecting the work lead to the end of the weld joint, and then welding away from the work lead Figure 3:15, Another way of controling are blow is to use two work leads, one on each side of the weld. The best way {o-eliminac arc blow is to use aliermating current. Because alternating current changes directions the flux limes do not become strong cnough to bend the are before the current changes direction. (Fit is impossitle io move the work con rection oF to change to AC, nvery short are length can hip control arc blow. A large tack weld or a change im the elec trode angle can also help control art blow. ‘Are blow may not be a problem as you are learning to weld in the shop becruse most welding tables are al ee FIGURE 3-12 Magnetic force around a wire gra ean: en A fer acetate ed md tb ak pa deh thd ay one Sep kt deed Pasa tts eon bso ease sel renee (ae Len eae aon ne ee dee BasChapter’ Shielded Metal Arc Equipment; Setup, and Operation SPACING INCREASES THUS FIGURE 3-13 Magnatic forces concentrate around bends FIGURE 3-14 Arc blow. WELD SeEeToy x FIGURE 345 Corect current connections to contol ae blew. steel. However, if you are using a pipe stand to hold your welding practice plas, arc blow can become a problem. “Tey changing where you have your practice plates clamped to change the path the welding current takes through the plate, which can change the affects of arc blow. Types of Power Sources ‘Two types of electrical devices can be used to produce the low-voltage, high-ampersge current combination that arc welding requires. One type uses electric motors o¢ internal ST ccmibustion engines to drive alternators or generators. The other type uses step-down transformers. Because trans- former type welding machines are quister, are more eneny- efficent, require less maintenance, and are less expensive they are now the industry standards However, engine-pow= coed generators are stil widely used for portable welding, Transformer-Type Welding Machines A welding transformer uses the altemating current (AC) supplied to the welding shap at a high voltage to produce the low- voltage welding power The heart of these welders is the step-down transformer. All transformers have the follow- ing three major components + Primary coil—the winding attached to the incoming electrical power + Secondary coil—ihe winding that has the electrical ‘current induced and iscomnecied tothe welding lead and work leads + Core—made of laminated sheets of siee! and used to concentrate the magnetic field produced in the Primary winding mio the secondary winding Figure 3416 As clocrons flow through a. wire, they produce a mage ‘etic fied around the wire ithe wire is wound into a cod, the ‘weak magncic fick of cach wine is sonsentrated to produce a much stronger ceniral magnetic force. Because the current boeing used is ahernating or teversing each 1/120 af a second, the magnetic field is constantly being built ancl allowed to col lapse. By placing a second or secondary winding of wire in the magnetic field produced bythe first primary winding, a current willbe induced inthe secondary winding, The placing SECONDARY COIL: pcr eng A eter ey mateo nme nel ee np ee hgh ed py cn mone ee eck dich) Se Sopehcac econ asain ac oan ma Cake! tun arse eon uel ace ned a2 AMPERES NeuT — FIGURE 3-17 Disgrem of a step-down transformer. fam irm core inthe center of these coils will crease the concentration ofthe magnetic Held, Figure 3-17 ‘Altanslormer with more turns of wire in the primary winding than im the secondary winding is known a5 2 step-down transformer. A step-down transformer takes a high-voltage, Jow-amperage current and changes t into a Kow-voliage, high-amperage current, Except for some power las by heat within a transformer, the power (wails) into atransformer equals the power (wats) cut because the volts and amperes are mutually increased and decreased. A transformer welder is a step-down transformer. It takes the high line wohtage (L10 V, 220 V. 440 ¥, etc) and low-amperage current (30 A, 50 A, 60 A, etc) and changes itimto 17V to 45°V at 190 Ato 590 A nes Turn the power switch off any time you have stopped walding for a few minutes bacause electiity flows through the primary coil of s tinsformertype welder any time the pewer switeh is on, Figura 2-18. The amaunt af current flowing snot #s much as i is whan you are welding, but this practice will save electricity and can lengthen the ite of your welding machine ‘Welding machines can be classified by the method by which they control ar adjust the welding current. The major classifteations are multiple coil (called tap type), movable coil, movable core, (sce Figure 3-18), nd inverter type FAIA AC POWER INPUT SIDE bag oniorr SWITCH TAP TYE MOVABLE CORE FIGURE 3-18 Major types of adjustable welding transformers. Section 2. Shielded Metal Weng SECONDARY oureur—> 4 1B0 AMPERES ‘Muttipte-Coll The multipi-coil machine, oF tap-type rat chine, allows the selection of differnt current settings by tapping inio the secondary coil at a diferent turn value. The greater the number of turns, the higher the amperage ts in duced inthe tums. These machines may havea large number ol fined amperes, Figure 3-19, orthey may have two or more amperages that can be adjusied further with a fine adjusting nob. The fine adjusting knob may be marked in amperes, of it may be marked in tenths, humdredbhs, or m any other unit. FIGURE 3:19 Tap-type transformer welding machine FON CORE SECONDARY co MOVABLE COL‘Chapter 3. Shielded Metal Ave Equipment, Setup, and Operation [EXPERIMENT 3-1 Estimating Amperages Using a pencil and paper, you will prepare 2 rough esti- ‘matc of the amperage setting ofa welding machine listed in ‘Table 3-1 Figure 3-20 shows. welding machine with low, ‘medium, and high tap amperage ranges. A fine adjusting ‘knob is marked with 10 equal divisions, and each division ‘is again divided by 10'smaler lines. ‘The machine is set on the medium range, 50 to 250 amperes, and the fine adjusting knob is turned until it points to the line marked 5 (halfway between 0 and 10). This means that the amperage is halfway from 50 to 250, oF 150 amperes. Ifthe fine adjusting knob points be- tween 2 and 3, the resulting amperage ts one-quarter of the way from 50 to 250, or approximately 100 amperes. ‘the knob points between 7 and 8, then the amperage is three-quarters of the way fram 50 to 250, orapproximately 200 amperes. If the knob points at 4, the amperage is ‘Mecium Mecium Mecium Low Low Low High High High High ‘TABLE 3-1 Estimate the Amperage for the Welding (Machine Settings @ ow HIGH 1010150 S0t0250 175 m0 425 amperes amperes amperes FIGURE 2-20 Welder power range taps and adjustment knots ‘more than 100 but a little less than 150, or approximately 130 to 140 amperes ‘Because this isa method of estimating only, the amper- age value obtained is clase enough to allow an are ta be struck. The welder can then finish the fine adjusting kro tw obtain a good weld ‘Complete a copy ofthe “Student Welding Report’ listed im Appendix | or provided by your instructor. @ EXPERIMENT 3-2 Calculating the Amperage Setting Using a pencil and paper or calculator, you will calculate the exact value foreach space on the fine adjusting knob of welding machine as listed in Table 3-2, Wath the machine set on the medi range, from 5010 250 amperes first subtract the low amperage from the high amperage to get the amperage spread (250 — 30 = 200). Now divide the amperage spread by the number of units shown on the fine adjusting knob (200 + 10 = 20). Each tumit is equal to a 20-ampere increase, Table 3-3. When the knob points to 0, the amperage is 30; when the knob points to I, the amperage is 70, and at 2, the amperageis 90, Figure 3.21. There are 100 small units on the fine adjusting, knob, Dividing the amperage spread by the murmber of small amis gives the amperage value for each unit (200 + 100 = 2), Therefore, ifthe knob points to 6.1 the amperage is set ata value of 30+ 120 + 2 = 172 amperes, This method provides a good starting place for the current setting, but if the welding is tobe made in accordance with a welding, procedure's specific amperage setting. it will be necessary 10 ‘use calibrated meter to make the correct sett Complete a copy ofthe “Student Welding Report” listed in Appendix | or provided by your instructor. # Ooo ook s TABLE 3-2 The Machine Is Sat on the High Amperage ange of 128 to 380 cide ser conn ering fe ed tg mth ce mel fine nig ch ih ee gy gd cd eth ala eb pe on Seno ah ST ol Eon CE ae ane er aon eon Dm ncTABLE 3-3 Example ofa Table Used to Caleulate the ‘Amperage Setting FIGURE 3-21 Fina agjusting knob, PRACTICE 3 Estimating Amperages Using a pencil and paper and the amperage ranges given in this practice (or from machines in the shop), you will estimate the amperage when the kab is at the one-quarter, one-half, and three-quarter seitings, Figure 3-22 ‘Complete a copy ofthe “Student Welding Repost” listed im Appendix | or provided by your instructor. # PRACTICE 3 Calculating Amperages Using a pencil and! paper or a calculator, and the amper age ranges given in this practice (or from machines in the shop), you will calculate the amperages for each of the nob settings in Table 3-4 gra gn amit gen Reed at oe se pe a duns hh a a ae Section2 Shielded Metal Arc Wektng ® @ o Low MEDIUM HIGH 5.10 — 01026015010 380 amperes amperes amperes FIGURE 3.22 Practice 2-1 ‘TABLE 2-4 Calculate the Amperage for Each of the Knob Settings Complete a copy of the “Student Welding Report” listed in Appendix tor provided by your instructor. # MOVABLE COIL OR CORE Movable coil or movable core machines are adjusted by turning ahandhrheel that moves the intemal parts close? together or fanher apart. The adjustment may also be made by moving a lever or turning a knob, Figure 3-23, ‘These machines may have a high range and low range but they domnot have a fine adjusting knob. The closer the primary and secondary cotls ae, the greater the induced current, the greater the distance between the coils, the smaller the induced current, Figure 3-24. Moving the core in concentrates move of the magnetic force on the second: ary coil, thus increasing the current. Moving the core out allows the fickd to disperse. and the current is reduced, Figure 3-25 at ct ante rene ek eo he ieee nebo seme Foi ann eet a none 2 eat esChapter3 shietc ADJUSTING CRANK. ANPERAGESCALE | FIGURE 3-23 movable, core-type welding machine, amare pcicarac| sons worm emma ae sia hi ‘ iia FIGURE 3-24 Movabis ca! FO FIGURE 3-25 Movab: INVERTER Inverter welding machines are much types of machines of the smaller size makes the welder rmuch more portable as well the energy elliciency, Figure 3-26, In a stzn- dard welding iran care used to concen: trate the magnetic field im the coils aust be sized to work a briefcase-sie carr the 60 eyele power. When the iron core field will build an Fuses solid-state electronic scomiing power parts to change the second to several thow frequency allan nm 60 cycles per welder remove 1 jh DC weldin inthe inverter-type parts in the in tum the output into sm elder allows itto pro ed aype of welding power. Before the invention of this machine, each type of welding required a separate can be used. The welder oes noth: 3s farto adjust the machi chinesallow the welder t 10 walk clding inthe weldin62 wire is cheaper than welding cables. Some manufacturers produce machines that can be stacked sa that when you peed a Langer machine, all you have to da is add ancther unit to your existing welder. GENERATOR-TYPE AND ALTERNATOR-TYPE WELDERS Generators and alternators both produce welding electric- ity ftom a mechanical power source. Both devices have an. armature that rotates and a stator that 1s stationary. AS a wire moves through a magnetic force field, electrons in the wire are made to move, producing electricity In an alternator, magnetic lines of force rotate mside a coil of wire, Figure 3-27, An alternator can produce AC only Ina generator, a coil of wire rotates side a magnetic field A generator produces DC. I is possible for akernz ddodesto change the AC DC lor welding in generators, the welding current is produced on the armature and is picked up wah brushes, Figure 3-28. In altemators, the welding, ccurrem is produced on the stator, nd only the small current for the electromagnetic force Fickd goes across the brushes. Therelone, the Brushes in an alternator are smaller and last longer. Alternatorscan be sn nd lighter in wi than generators and sill prosh amount of power ROTOR OR FIGURE 3-27 Schematic diagram of an sternator ie pa ARMATURE ee FIGURE 2-28 Diagram of » oe Coppa estn:eie terteedNat eme ttl ean decal mg reece eet ance cis geome ag tae ome de im relocate Section 2S Engine-driven. generators and ahernators muy run at 1c welding speed all the time. or they may have an option that reduces ther ced tom idle whem welding option svesfoe andres wear om the welding ms ‘ng machine (welder) pickup eal remove the electrode from the workand sre an arc. tm general, the voltage and amperage are too low to start. weld, +0 shorting the clec- trode to the work should not cause the electrode ta stick. A timer can be set o control the lengih of time thatthe welder unas speed ale he ass boken, The ime shoul be plasma cutting equipment, air compressors, and other equipment a welder may need. The power provided may be AC or DC. If DC is provided, then only equipment with Ibrush-type motors or tungsten lightbulbs can be used. tf the plug isnot specifically labeled 110 wots AC. check the owner's manual belore using it for devices such as radios for other electronic equipment. Typical portable weldersare shown in Figure 3-294 and Figure 3-298 IGURE 3-29 (A) Portable engine generator welder {B) Light weight portable SMA and GTA welder. et te te on ato chek nC(Chapter 3 Shielded Metal Arc Equipment Setup, and Operation ROUTINE MAINTENANCE (One ofthe major drawbacksto portable engine-driven weld- crsis that they require more maintenance than do the other typesof welding machines. Foor maintenance practices ean lesel toa variety of problems, inchuting starting and running dliffcukies, fare to maintain consistent welding power. higher operating cost and significantly reduced engine life It is important to keep portabie engine welders properly tuned so they do not produce excessive si pollution. A properly maintained engine wil produce less air pollution sand burn less fuel. fas Both used engine oil and batteries can be racycled. Used oil can be rerefined so it can be used again, and the Jead and other parts of used batteries can be recycled 10 make naw anes, Inés recommended that a routine maintenance sched: ule for portable welders should be set up and followed. By checking the oil, coolant, batery filters, fuel, and other parts, the life-f the equipment can be extended. A check. can be posted on the welder, Table 3-5 ‘level ‘wate eve ul evel atiey level cables ul hn ter ‘ether eke and haves ‘change of and tlker Atlee “est battery ak wheel bearnge Change gat titer TABLE 3-5 Poctable Weller Checklist. The Oviner's Manual Should Ba Checkad for Any Adcitional tame that Might Need Attantion a CONVERTING AC TO DC Alternating welding current can be converted to direct rent by using a series of rectifiers. A rectifier allows cur- rent to flow in one ditection only, Figure 3-30 Wome rectifier added, then the weldig power sp- pearsasshown in Figure 331. It would be difficult to weld vwith pulsating power such as this. A scrics of rectifiers, nownas abnidge rectifier, can modidy the alernating cur- rent so that it appears as shown in Figure 3-32. Rectifiers become hot a5 they change AC to DC. They smst be attached toa heat sink and cooled by having, air blown over them. The heat produced by a rectifier reduces the power efficiency of the welding machine, Figure 333, shows the amperage dial of atypical machine. Notice that atthe same dial setings for AC and DC, the DC ts ata low amperage. The difference in amperage (power) is duc to heat losin the rectifiers. The less im power makes operation, with AC more efficent and less expensive compared to DC ‘ADC adupier for small AC machines is available from manufacturers. For some types of welding, AC does not work preperiy FIGURE 3-30 Rectifier *+{\ fy. FIGURE.31 One rectifier in 2 welding power supply results in pulsating pawer Tt wweUT Ac FIGURE 3-22 Bridge recite. ans eg a onda eek sre ot en op se gh ed atin Mp ee cen heh ee SS SS SeeFIGURE 2.23 Typical sal on an AC-DC tanstormer sectfier welder DUTY CYCLE Welding machines produce internal heat at the same time they produce the welding current. Except for auiomatic welding machines, welders are rarely used every mite lor long periods of time. The welder must take time to change electrodes, change positions, or change parts. Shielded ‘metal arc welding never continues for long periods of time ‘The duty cycle isthe percentage of time a welding ma- chine ean be used continuously. A 60% duty cycle means that out of any 10 minutes, the machine ean be used fora total of six minutes at the maximum rated current. When providing power al this level it must be cooled off for four ‘minutes out of every 10 minutes. The duty cyele increases as the amperage is lrwered and decreases for higher am- perages, Figure 334. Most welding machines weld at a FIGURE 3-34 Duty cycle ofa typical shielded metal arc welcing machine green ca Lana ff ure eel eed pedi nl a ct ch eed mtn ape ee ot Br nt ie reenact Sy oe ease aaron pe perme eset empties rac es ea Section 2 Stielded Metat Arc Welding (60% rate or less, Therefore, most manufacturers fist the ‘amperage rating fora 60% duty cycle om the nameplate that isattached tothe machine. Other duty eyeles are given on, 1 graph in the owner's mamual manufacturing cost of power supplies increases in [proportion to their rated output and dary cycle. To reduce their price, tis necessary io reduce citer thet rang or their duty cycle. For this reason, some home-hobby welding ma- chines may have duty cycles as low as 20% even at a low ‘welding setingof90 to 100amperes. The duty cycle anthese ‘machines should never be exceeded becanse a buildup ofthe ‘internal ermperature can cause the traneformer insulation to ‘break down, damaging the power source. PRACTICE 3-3, Reading the Duty Cycle Chart {Using a pencil and paper and the duty cycle chart in Figure 3-34 (or one ftom machines in the shop), you will detez- ‘mine the following: ‘Welder 1: Maximum welding amperage percent duty cycle at maximum amperage ‘Welder2: Maximum weldmg amperage percent duty cycle at maximum amperage Welder3: Maxinmam welding amperage percent uty cycle at maximum amperage Welder 1) Maximum welding amperage al 100% any cyele ‘Welder2:-Maxinum welding amperage al 100% duty cycle ‘Welder3: Maximum welding amperage a 100% duty cycle ‘Complete a copy ofthe “Student Welding Report" listed. ‘in Appendix | or provided by your instructor. WELDER ACCESSORIES ‘A numberof items must be used with a welding machine to complete the setup. The major items are the welding cables, the clectrade holders, and the work clamps WELDING CABLES ‘The terms welding cables and welding leads mean the same thing, Cables to be used for welding must be flexibe, ‘well insulated, and the correct size for the job. Most welding cables are made from stranded copper wire. Some manusc turers sell anewer type of cable made from afurninam wires ‘The aluminum wires ate lighter and less expensive than copper. Because aluminum 15..conductor isnot as good 3s ‘copper lor a given wire size, the aluminum wire should be ‘one size larger than would be required for copper. ‘The insulation on welding cables will be exposed to hot sparks, flames, grease, oils, sharp edges, impact, and otherTABLE 2-8 Copper and Aluminum Welding Lead Sizos types of wear. To withstand such wear, wel g cables are ured with special insulation for that type of service ph asable, the resistance to the to heat up and increase the voltage the loss of power and preven ove drop. To minim ing the elciode cable and work cable mist be the core fretomerctuad Ligh Lege wideaeedereke jade manipolation difficult. Smaller cable can be spliced the electrode end of a large cable to make it more flexible This ‘must not be less than. 10 ft (3m long, Asplice in a cable should not be within 10 ft (3 im) of the electrode because of the possibility of lectrical shock. PRACTICE 3-4 Determining Welding Lead Sizes 10K: (30em) leads welding lead 3. The maximum lenggh aluminum welding lead that cancarry 300 amp: Splices and end lugs are available from suppliers. Be sure that a good elecirical connection is made whenever slices or lugs are weed. A poor electrical connection will result in heat buildup, voltage drop, and poor service from insulated 35, POWER LUG AND (CABLE ENDS ARE tion i provided by insulators songs totter)(Complete a copy of the “Student Welding Report” listed in Appendix | or provided by your instructor. ELECTRODE HOLDERS The electrode holder should be ofthe proper amperage rat ing and in good repatr for sale welding. Electrode holders are designed to be used at their maximum amperage rat- ing ot less Higher amperage vahies will cause the holder ve overheat and bum up. II the holder ts too lange for the amperage range being used, mampalation is diffcult and ‘operator fatigue increases. Make sure that the correct ame pperage holder is chosen, Figure 336 ‘Never dip a hot electrode holder in water to cool it off. The problem causing the holder to overheat should be repaired. s ‘A properly sized electrode holder can averheat if the jaws are dirty or loose. ori the cable i lose. Ithe holder heats up, then welding power is being lost. In addition, a hot elecinade holder is inncemfortatle to-work with Replacement springs, jaws, insulators, handles, screws, and other parts are available to keep the holder im good working order, Figure 3-37. Ta prevent excessive damage FIGURE 2-36 The amperage cenacity of an electrode: hlder is often marked on is sie. UPPER ARM SPRING ————— Lower an — am swan asseuee FRGURE 3.37 Felceable prs of anelecvode hoe pl oe ABM Re tlm i ep ln hl pt ed iti tnd es raat nen ec sw ca a Be bee cottons Ca an He ae ab ons a Hae a EH Section 2 Shielded Metal Are Weiding torthe holder, welding electrodes should not be burned too short. A 2-in. (50-mm) electrode stub is short enough to sinimize electrode waste and save the holder. PRACTICE 3-5 Repairing Electrode Holders Using the manufacturer's instructions far your type of elec: trode holder, required hand tools, and replacement paris, you will do the following GY see Before starting any work, make sure that the Power to the welder is off and locked off or that ‘the welding lead has been remaved from the machine. a = Remove the electrode holder from the welding cable Remove the jaw insulating covers. Replace the jaw insulating covers, Reconnect the electrode holder tothe welding cable. Tarn on the welding power or reconnect the weld- ing cable to the welder Make a weld to ensure that the repair was made correctly (Complete a copy ofthe “Student Welding Report” listed in Appendix for provided by your instructor. # WORK CLAMPS ‘The work clamp must be the correct size for the current be ingused, and it must clamp tighily tothe material. Heat can build up in the work clamp, reducing welding elfciency just as was previously described for the electrode holder. Power losses in the work clamp are often overlooked. The clamp should be carefully touched occasionally ta find out if its geting hot In addition to power losses due 10 poor work lead: clamping, a lose clump may cause arcing that can dam- ‘age part. Ifthe part isto be moved during welding. then swiveltype work clamp may be needed, Figure 3-38 FIGURE 3-88 A. work clamp may be attached to the workpiece.FIGURE 3-39 Tack welded ground to part Ue may be ecessaryto weld 2b 10 thick parts so thatthe work lead can be clamped to the tb, Figure 3-39 EQUIPMENT SETUP ‘are welding machines should be located near the weld ing site, but [ar enough away so that they are not covered with spark showers. The machines may be stacked to save space, but there must be enough roam between the machines to ensure the air can circulate and to keep the machines from overheating. The air that is circu- lated through the machine should be as fece as possible of dust, oil, and metal filings. Even in a good loca tion, the power should be turned off periodically and the machine should le blown out with compressed ai, Figure 3-40 “The welding machine should be located away from cleaning tanks and any other sources of corrosive fumes FIGURE 3-40 Siag, chips trom grinding, and dust must bbe blown out occasionally so that they wril not start fire (oF cause a short-out or cfher typas af machine failure. FIGURE 3-41 To prevent people from tripping when cables must be placed in walkways, lay two-blocks of wood beside the cables that could be blown through it, Water leaks must he Red sea ce Sed be esd ifr am Power tothe machine must be fused, and a power shut- off switch must be provided. The switch must be located that it can be reached in an emergency wahout touching either the machine or the welding station. The machme case or frame must be grounded The welding cables should be sufficiently long to reach the workstation but not so long that they must always be coiled, Cables should not be placed om the Foor in aisles or walkways. Weables must cross a-walk- way, then the cable must he installed overhead, ort rust be protected by a ramp, Figure 3-41. The welding ma- chine and its main power switch should be turned of and locked off while a person is installing of working on the cables The workstation must be free of combustible materi- als. Screens or curtains should be provided to protect other ‘workers from the arc light The welding cable should never be wrapped around arms, shoulders, waist, or any other part of the body. If the cable coma by Ry mori eres, ees Forklift, crane, or dolly, a welder could be pulled off bal- ance of more seriously injured. If itis necessary to hold the ‘weight off the cable so that the welding ean be more easily dome, a free hand can be used. The cable should be held so ‘that itis polled it can be easily released Check the sumoundings before starting to weld. tf beavy materials are being moved in the area around you, there should be a salety watch. A salety watch cam warn a person of danger while that person is welding, peed A i Ml a i ton in ch ce id yan pre tk iene, ete eo ned anon beens a eH cl RY Re oe NG Her ERE MC a HER ah A