LC2 EE3726 C14 Frequency Responses

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
AC Circuits
Chapter 14. Frequency responses

14.1. Introduction
14.2. Transfer function
14.3. Decibel scale
14.4. Bode plots
14.5. Series/parallel resonance
14.6. Passive/active filters
14.7. Scaling
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits
14.1. Introduction
+ Previous chapters: learned how to find voltages and currents in a circuit with a constant frequency
source
+ Let the amplitude of the sinusoidal source remain constant and vary the frequency  obtain the
circuit’s frequency response
The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its

behavior with change in signal frequency
+ The sinusoidal steady state frequency responses of circuits  significant in many applications
(communications, control systems, filters)

+ Transfer function H(ɷ) (network function):  a useful analytical tool for finding the frequency
response of a circuit
+ The frequency response of a circuit:  the plot of the circuit’s transfer function H(w) versus w with
w varying from 0 to ∞
Transfer fucntion H(ɷ) of a circuit:  ratio of a output phasor Y(ɷ) (voltage or current on an element)
to an input phasor X(ɷ) (source voltage or current)
Y  
. .
X() Linear network Y()
H    H     .
X   Input H() Output


+ Since the input and output can be either voltage or current  4 possible transfer functions
Vo   Io  
Voltage gain: H    Current gain: H  
Vi   Ii  
Vo   Io  
Transfer impedance: H    Transfer admittance: H  
Ii   Vi  
+ To obtain the transfer functions:
o Replace: R  R L  j L C 1
j C
o Apply any circuit analysis technique to find the defined ratio

+ Transfer function:  expressed in terms of its numerator polynomial N(ɷ), and denominator polynomial
D(ɷ)
N   Zero points z1, z2, …: The roots of N(ɷ) = 0

H  
D  Pole point p1, p2, …: The roots of D(ɷ) = 0
 A zero, as a root of the numerator polynomial, is a value that results in a zero value of the function
 A pole, as a root of the denominator polynomial, is a value for which the function is infinite

+ Example 1: Given a circuit as the next figure, find the transfer
function V0/VS and its frequency response
Solution
+ Replace the given circuit by the equivalent circuit in the
frequency domain
+ The transfer function is: 1 + Frequency response is:
.
V ()
 jC 
. 1
H()  .0
VS() R
1 1 j RC
jC
H  1

    2
 1  
  0   
1
 0
RC
   tan 1   
  
  0
14.3. Decibel scale

+ It is not always easy to get a quick plot of the magnitude and Magnitude H 20log10H (dB)
phase of the transfer function
0,001 -60
0,01 -40
+ The frequency range required in frequency response is 0,1 -20

wide  it is inconvenient to use a linear scale 0,5 -6
1/sqrt(2) -3
1 0
+ A more systematic way of obtaining the frequency response 
use Bode plots which are based on logarithms sqrt(2) 3
2 6
10 20
20 26
100 40
1000 60
14.3. Decibel scale

P2 V22 / R2 V22 R
GdB  10 log10  10 log10 2  10 log10 2  10 log10 1
P1 V1 / R1 V1 R2
V2 I2
For R1 = R2 : GdB  20 log10 GdB  20 log10
V1 I1
P2 V2 I2
GdB 10 log10 ; GdB 20 log10 ; GdB 20 log10
P1 V1 I1
+ Note:
o 10log is used for power, which 20log is used for voltage or current
o dB value is dimensionless quantity
14.4. Bode plot

+ In Bode plots:  a logarithmic scale for the frequency axis, a linear scale in magnitude or phase
Bode plots are semilog plots of the magnitude (in dB) and
phase (in degrees) of a transfer function versus frequency
 
H   H      He j  lnH   ln H   ln e j  ln H  j
Real part lnH is a function of the magnitude of the transfer function

Imaginary part is the phase
Resonance is a condition in an R-L-C circuit in which the capacitive and inductive impedance are
equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely resistive impedance (reactance equals to zero)
+ Resonance occurs:
 in any system that has a complex conjugate pair of poles
 cause of oscillations of stored energy from one form to another
+ Resonance is a phenomenon:  allows frequency discrimination in communication networks, filter

construction,…
+ The most prominent feature of the frequency response:  the sharp peak (resonant peak) exhibited in its
amplitude characteristic

14.5.1. Series resonance
+ Consider the series RLC circuit:
Vs  1 
Input impedance Z  H    R  j  L  
I  C 
When resonance
ImZ   L 
1 1 1
 0  0   f0  ɷ0: resonant frequency
C LC 2 LC
At resonance:
o The impedance is purely resistive, L-C series combination acts like a short circuit, and the
entire voltage is across R
o Voltage VS, current I are in phase, the power factor is unity
o H(ɷ) = Z(ɷ) is minimum
o VL, and VC can be much more than the source voltage

+ The frequency response of the current magnitude:
Vm
I  I 
2
 1 
R   L 
2

 C 
1 Vm2
+ The highest power dissipated: P0  
2 R
Vm2
+ The half-power frequencies: P 1   P 2  
4R
2 2
R  R  1 R  R  1
1       2     
2L  2 L  LC 2L  2 L  LC
+ Relationship between resonant frequency & half-power frequencies: 0  12

+ Frequency response of the current magnitude depends on:
Vm
I  I  R:  height of the curve
 1 
2
Half-power bandwidth: B  2 1
R   L 
2

 C 
+ Sharpness of the resonance in a resonant circuit:  measured
by the quality factor Q
Q  2
Peak energy stored in thecircuit
Energy dissipated by thecircuit in oneperiod at resonance
 At resonance: the reactive energy oscillates between the inductor and the capacitor

1 2
+ In RLC circuit: Peak energy stored: E p  LI
2 1 RI 2
Energy dissipated in one period: Ed 
2 f
LI 2 2fL 0 L 1
+ Quality factor Q: Q  2 f  Q  
RI 2
R R 0 RC
R 0
+ Relationship between B and Q: B   02 RC
L Q
The quality factor of a resonant circuit is the ratio of its

resonant frequency to its bandwidth

+ Selectivity ( of an RLC circuit):  ability of the circuit to respond to a

certain frequency and discriminate against all other frequencies
+ (Selected or rejected) Frequency Band  narrow / wide, Quality factor of

the resonant circuit  high / low
+ Q  a measure of the selectivity (sharpness of resonance) of the circuit.

The higher the value of Q, the more selective the circuit is but smaller the
bandwidth

+ Quality factor of circuit is greater than 10  high-Q circuit

+ Half power frequencies are symmetrical around the resonant frequency
B B
1  0   2  0 
2 2
+ A resonant circuit is characterized by 5 parameters:
 Half-power frequencies: ɷ1, ɷ2
 Resonant frequency: ɷ0
 Bandwidth B
 Quality factor Q

14.5.2. Parallel resonance
+ Consider the parallel R-L-C circuit:
I 1
The admittance is: Y  H      j  C 
1
V R j L
1
 Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of Y is zero 0 
LC
+ At resonance:
Parallel LC combination acts like an open circuit
The inductor and capacitor current can be much more than the source current
Half-power frequencies:
2 2
1  1  1 1  1  1
1       2     
2 RC  2 RC  LC 2 RC  2 RC  LC

1
+ Bandwidth: B  2  1 
RC
0 R
+ Quality factor: Q  0 RC 
B 0 L
B B
+ Half power frequencies: 1  0   2  0 
2 2

Summary of the characteristics of resonant RLC circuits

Characteristic Series circuit Parallel circuit
1 1
Resonant frequency, ω0
LC LC
0 L or 1 R
Quality factor, Q or 0 RC
R 0 RC 0 L
0 0
Bandwidth, B Q Q
2
 1  0
2
 1  0
Half power frequencies, ω1, ω2 0 1    2Q 0 1   
 2Q   2Q  2Q
For Q ≥ 10, ω1, ω2 0 

B  B
0
2 2

+ A filter:  a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate
others
+ A filter is:
a passive filter if it consists of only passive elements R, L & C

an active filter if it consists of active elements (such as transistor and op amps) in addition to
passive elements R, L, & C
(a digital filter
electromachenical filters
microwave filters)

+ There are 4 types of filters:
Low-pass filter: passes low frequencies and stop high frequencies

High-pass filter: passes high frequencies and reject low frequencies
Band-pass filter: passes frequencies within a frequency band and block or attenuates frequencies
outsides the band
Band-stop filter: passes frequencies outside a frequency band and block or attenuates
frequencies within the band

Summary of the characteristics of filters
Type of filter H(0) H(∞) H(ɷC) or H(ɷ0)
Low-pass 1 0 1/sqrt(2)
High-pass 0 1 1/sqrt(2)
Band-pass 0 0 1
Band-stop 1 1 0
ɷC is the cut-off frequency for low-pass and high-pass filters

ɷ0 is the center frequency for band-pass and band-stop filters

14.6.1. Passive filters
+ Low-pass filter:
Typical low-pass filter:  formed when the output of an RC circuit is taken off
the. capacitor
V0 1 / j C
H  
1
Transfer function:  
Vi R  1 / jC  1  jRC
Cut-off frequency (roll-off frequency) ɷC :  obtained by setting the magnitude of
H(ɷ) equal to 1/sqrt(2)
Hc  
1 1 1
  c 
1  RC  RC
2
2
Low-pass filter is designed to pass only frequencies from DC up to the cut-off frequency ɷC

+ High-pass filter:
High-pass filter:  formed when the output of an RC circuit is taken off the
resistor
V0 jRC
H  
R
Transfer function:  
Vi R  1 / jC  1  jRC

Hc  
1 1 1
Cut-off frequency:   c 
 1 
2
2 RC
1  
 RC 
A high-pass filter is designed to pass all frequencies above its cut-off frequency ɷC

+ Band-pass filter
o Band-pass filter  designed to pass all frequencies within a band of
frequencies ɷ1 < ɷ < ɷ2
o Band- pass filter:  the RLC series resonant circuit when
the output is taken off the resistor
V0
o Transfer function: H    
R
Vi R  j L  1 / C 
1
o Center frequency: 0 
LC
o Band-pass filter:  also formed by cascading the low-pass filter with the high-pass
filter

+ Band-stop filter
o Band-pass filter:  designed to stop or eliminate all frequencies within a
band of frequencies ɷ1 < ɷ < ɷ2
o Band-stop filter:  RLC series resonant circuit with output is the LC
series combination
V0 j L  1 / C 
o Transfer function: H    
Vi R  j L  1 / C 
1
o Frequency of rejection: c 
LC

+ Example 2: Determine what type of filter. Calculate the cut- off frequency if
R = 2kΩ, L = 2H, C = 2µF
Solution
V0
Transfer function: H  
R


Vi  RLC 2  jL  R
H(0)  1
  Second-order low-pass filter
H()  0
V0
Note: H s   
R
 j  s 
Vi RLCs 2  sL  R

+ Example 2: Determine what type of filter. Calculate the cut- off frequency if
R = 2kΩ, L = 2H, C = 2µF
Solution
+ Cut-off frequency is the frequency where H is reduce by 1/sqrt(2):

V0
H  
R R
 H 

Vi  RLC  jL  R R  RLC 
2
2 2
  2 L2
1 R2
H  2
 16c2  7c2  1  0  c  742rad / s

2 R  RLCc2 2  c2 L2 

+ Three major limits of the passive filters:
o Cannot generate gain greater than 1 Passive elements cannot add energy to the
network
o May require bulky and expensive inductor
o Perform poorly at frequencies below the audio frequency range (300Hz < f < 3000Hz) (the
passive filters are useful at high frequencies)

14.6.2. Active filters
+ Active filters consist of combinations of R, C & Op- Amps  offer some advantages over passive RLC
filters
 Often smaller and less expensive because they do not require inductor
 Can provide amplifier gain in addition to providing the same frequency response as RLC filters
 Can be combined with buffer amplifier (voltage followers) to isolate each stage of the filter from
source and load impedance effects
+ Active filters are less reliable, less stable, & limit at low frequency (<100kHz)

+ One type of first-order active filter:
Components Zi and Zf
 One of them must be reactive

 They determine whether the filter is low-pass or high-pass
+ First-order low-pass filter:

V0 Zf Rf
H   
1
Transfer function:   .

Vi Zi Ri 1  jC f R f
1
Cut-off frequency: c 
Rf C f

+ First-order high-pass filter:
V0 Zf j C i R f
o Transfer function: H     

Vi Zi 1  jCi Ri
1
o Cut-off frequency: c 
Ri Ci
+ Band-pass filter:
To form a band-pass filter: combine an unity-gain low-pass filter with

unity-gain high-pass filter & an inverter with gain - Rf/Ri

+ Band-pass filter:
o Transfer function:
V0  jC2 R  R f 
H   
1
 .    
 1  jC1 R  1  jC2 R  Ri
Vi 
o Characteristics:
1 1
1  ; 2 
RC1 RC2
0
0  12 B  2  1 Q
B

+ Band-stop filter:
 May be constructed by parallel combination of a low-
pass filter & a high-pass filter & a summing amplifier
o Transfer function:
V0  R f  j C 2 R 
H   
1
   .   
Vi  Ri   1  jC1 R 1  jC2 R 
o Characteristics:
1 1
1  ; 2 
RC1 RC2
0
0  12 B  2  1 Q
B

+ Band-stop filter:
V0  R f  j C 2 R 
H   
1
   .   

Vi  Ri   1  jC1 R 1  jC2 R 
14.7. Scaling
+ In designing or analyzing filters and resonant circuits (circuit analysis in general): it is sometimes
convenient to work with:
Element values of 1Ω, 1H, 1F
Then transform to realistic values by scaling
+ Two ways of scaling a circuit:

o Magnitude or impedance scaling:  increasing all impedance in a network by a factor; the
frequency response remaining unchanged
o Frequency scaling:  shifting the frequency response of a network up or down the frequency axis
while leaving the impedance the same

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Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Chapter 14. Frequency responses

The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its

14.2. Transfer function

X   Input H() Output

14.2. Transfer function

+ To obtain the transfer functions:

14.2. Transfer function

N   Zero points z1, z2, …: The roots of N(ɷ) = 0

14.2. Transfer function

14.3. Decibel scale

+ The frequency range required in frequency response is 0,1 -20

14.3. Decibel scale

14.4. Bode plot

Real part lnH is a function of the magnitude of the transfer function

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

+ Resonance is a phenomenon:  allows frequency discrimination in communication networks, filter

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

The quality factor of a resonant circuit is the ratio of its

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

+ Selectivity ( of an RLC circuit):  ability of the circuit to respond to a

+ (Selected or rejected) Frequency Band  narrow / wide, Quality factor of

+ Q  a measure of the selectivity (sharpness of resonance) of the circuit.

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

+ Quality factor of circuit is greater than 10  high-Q circuit

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

14.5. Series/parallel resonance

Summary of the characteristics of resonant RLC circuits

For Q ≥ 10, ω1, ω2 0 

14.6. Passive/active filters

a passive filter if it consists of only passive elements R, L & C

14.6. Passive/active filters

Low-pass filter: passes low frequencies and stop high frequencies

14.6. Passive/active filters

ɷC is the cut-off frequency for low-pass and high-pass filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

+ Cut-off frequency is the frequency where H is reduce by 1/sqrt(2):

14.6. Passive/active filters

+ Three major limits of the passive filters:

o May require bulky and expensive inductor

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

 One of them must be reactive

+ First-order low-pass filter:

14.6. Passive/active filters

To form a band-pass filter: combine an unity-gain low-pass filter with

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

14.6. Passive/active filters

+ Two ways of scaling a circuit:

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