Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology

Structural Design: A description of the design philosophy followed for the principal load carrying structures, the materials employed and details of the structural
test programme
K.R. Obee, C.Eng., A.M.I.Mech.E., F.R.Ae.S.
Article information:
To cite this document:
K.R. Obee, C.Eng., A.M.I.Mech.E., F.R.Ae.S., (1967),"Structural Design", Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, Vol. 39 Iss 9 pp. 22 - 28
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 22 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING September 1967

HP

137

Structural Design
A description of the design philosophy followed for the principal load carrying structures, the materials
employed and details of the structural test programme

By K. R. Obee, C.Eng., A.M.I.Mech.E., F.R.Ae.S.

Project Engineer (Structures), Handley Page Ltd.

INTRODUCTION
LTHOUGH the first certification or the Jetstream
A is to be to B.C.A.R. Section K and F.A.R.
Part 23, it has always been intended that full
airline standards will be maintained and ultimately
certification to Section D, and Part 25 will be obtained.
From the point of view of static strength these
standards differ little and will have a minor effect only
on the structural design. The spirit of the full airline
requirements, however, is aimed at long life and fail
safe philosophies, and this has been foremost in the
thought behind Jetstream's structure. The design
crack- free life is 40,000 flights (30,000 hours) with the
additional aim of a fail safe primary structure. The
long crack-free life will be obtained by restricting the
working and fluctuating stresses to values decided for
each component by its own spectrum of load cycles.
Fail safe primary structure is achieved by the duplica-
tion of members, alternative load paths, 'catchers', or
by effective crack stoppers.
In the interests of both aerodynamic smoothness
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and to maintain the customer appeal of as near a 'car

type' finish as possible, aflushsurface overall has been
specified. To achieve this end, it was decided that
where mechanical attachments were necessary, cut
countersunk rivets and bolts would be used, the finish
obtainable with dimpled riveting being considered
unacceptable. Spot welding, of which the Company
have a wealth of experience, was also considered for
the flush jointing of thin skins. This has been largely
rejected because of the difficulty of maintaining a
good anti-corrosion finish for highly corrosive
environments, such as the bottom of the fuselage. The
use of spot welds is therefore confined to minor easily
replaceable parts, although somewhat more spot
welding is used on the prototypes than in production
aircraft, in the interest of rapid manufacture prior to
the development of alternative methods.
The third major jointing method being used to
obtain both directly and indirectly the objective of
smooth finish is adhesive bonding. Little use has been
made in past Handley Page aircraft of adhesive
bonding techniques, and most of the direct experience
available was in flat honeycomb sandwich. The ad-
vantages, to both cost and finish, of bonding were
nevertheless apparent, and evaluation of several
adhesives led to the low pressure 'forgiving' but well
tried Bloomingdale F.M.1000 being chosen on the
grounds of minimum plant cost, case of use with the
minimum of trained labour, and low R. & D. costs.
Once having accepted adhesive bonding, advantage
has been taken to reinforce thin skins with bonded
strips and thus enable attachments by cut countersunk
rivets to be made where direct bonding is not prac-
ticable.
The philosophies of long crack-free life and flush
riveting has also led to the introduction of another
new (to Handley Page) process. Chemical etching is
used to enable reduction in thickness to be made
between rows of rivets, or away from other areas of
stress concentration. Such chemical etching can also
be used as an alternative to the method of reinforcing
thin skins with bonded strips for cut countersunk
rivets. The use of which particular method, has been
decided by the circumstances obtaining and by value
engineering—technically the results are practically
indistinguishable, as has been shown by detail tests.
MATERIALS
Because of the restriction of working stresses to low
values, the very high strength aluminium-zinc alloys
were never seriously considered. The aluminium
4 J per cent copper alloys, medium strength, well tried
and available throughout the world were obvious
choices, and both the naturally aged forms, L.70 and
L.72 unclad and clad sheet, D.T.D.50I0 plate, L.64
bar and extrusion, L.76 forgings, and the artificially
aged forms L.71, L.73, D.T.D.5020, L.65 and L.77
are used. The lower static strength, naturally aged
material is used wherever tension fatigue strength is a
design criterion, because of its marginally better
fatigue life and definitely better crack propagation
properties. Where fatigue life is not a criterion and
advantage in weight saving can be made, the higher
static strength, artificially aged alloy is used. The use
of unclad sheet is confined to chemically etched parts
which are subsequently anodised as part of their anti-
corrosion protection.
Magnesium alloys have been largely excluded
because of their low corrosion resistance, and most
castings—the form in which large amounts of mag-
nesium have been used in the past—are in an arti-
ficially aged aluminium 7 per cent silicon magnesium
alloy—U.S. type A.356.
For most steel parts a moderately high tensile
(55 ton/sq. in.) 2½ per cent Ni-Cr-Mo steel is used
(S.96), except where a significant weight or space
saving can result or where ultimate strength is the only
criterion. In such cases the 65 ton/sq. in. version of
the same alloy is used (S.98).
STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION
Wing
The top and bottom wing skins which form the
main wing torque box are each made from one 25ft.
long, 13 s.w.g. sheet. The lower wing surface is L.70
 September 1967
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(fatigue criterion) and the upper L.7I. Both are
chemically milled to reduce their thickness outboard
of the main undercarriage pick-ups, spanwise lands
being left to act with the bonded-on stringers as wing
bending material and also to act as crack stoppers.
The lower panel is left unmilled along the centre third
of its chord to provide reinforcing round the oval
access holes between each of the ribs. These holes are
required both for access to the integral fuel tank,
which occupies all but one rib bay at root and tip of
the wing torque box, and for manufacturing reasons.
The choice of bonded stringers in this region of the
airframe was prompted very largely by the freedom
from tank sealing troubles that such skin-stringer
attachments would provide. The closing members of
the torque box are two orthodox sheet webs attached
by outward facing angles and conventional riveted
joints. All riveted joints within the integral tank are
made with Thiokol as the interfay—special attention
being paid to the detail design so that the often used,
but heavy, 'slushing' would not be necessary. Inside
corrosion protection consists of anodising for all
aluminium alloy parts, including clad sheet, followed
by two coats of chrometch primer with a further layer
of Thiokol over all steel parts.
Because of the very small diameter of the Turbomeca
Astazou engine and its tail pipe, there is little alterna-
tive for the stowage of the retracting main landing
gear except within the wing contour. Inevitably this
means a large cut-out in the torque box and in fact
AIRCRAFT E N G I N E E R I N G 23
reduces it to less than half of its width at the root.
To make up for this loss of bending section and to
carry the increased bending moment towards the root,
concentrated booms are grown up from a station a
few feet outboard of the undercarriage to their
maximum area at the wing root (FIG. 2). At the root
the skin covers are terminated and the wing bending
moments are carried through the fuselage by exten-
sions of the concentrated booms. The top boom angle
(L.77) is jointed at the fuselage side through an
integral fork and lug single pin joint, the centre
section member passing through the fuselage side.
The lower member which throughout its length is
laminated, being formed of an L.64 angle and a
nesting slab (D.T.D.5010), is attached at the wing root
by a scarf joint, the inboard members (L.76/D.T.D.
5010) passing beneath the fuselage pressure shell
(FIG. 3). Each lamination of the bottom boom is
capable of carrying the wing limit load.
Chordwise ribs to stabilise the skin-stringer com-
bination and act as tank baffles are pitched at about
18 in. throughout the span. The continuous flange of
these ribs, with certain exceptions, sits on the free
flange of the lipped Z section L.73 stringers, each
stringer being attached to the ribs with shear cleats
(FIG. 1). The more heavily loaded flap and aileron
hinge ribs are further attached to the wing skins
through castellated shear plates bonded to the skins
and riveted to the rib webs. The main undercarriage
pintle loads are transmitted into the wing box through
the outer of the two ribs which carry the engine bearer
attachments—both these ribs having heavy slab
booms on the outside of the wing contour, covered by
the engine nacelle fairing. The wing root attachment
rib transfers the torque and shear from the box
forward of the 30 per cent spar, to three vertical shear
carrying pickups. The forward of these at the wing
leading edge is a horizontal spigot with its axis normal
to the fuselage centre line. Failure of this pickup can
be tolerated since the other two are capable of
reacting the limit load wing shear and torque. The
next aft shear attachment is at the 30 per cent spar
through a multi-bolted shear joint between the spar
web and the fuselage frame (FIG. 3). Failure of this
joint or the fuselage frame throws the loads to the
forward and aft pickups. The aft pickup is at 70 per
cent chord through a pin joint in double shear, the pin
axis being parallel to the fuselage centre line (FIG. 4).
Failure-of this joint cannot be tolerated since the wing
torque would throw excessive loads on the other two
pickups, due to the small distance between them. It is
therefore made up of duplicated parts, any one of
which can carry limit load. The rib which sorts these
loads out has itself laminated flanges, the upper one
being outside the wing contour, but buried in the wing
fairing.
The wing leading edge is detachable along the span
through countersunk screws—interchangeable assem-
blies being available—either plain or with a rubber
pneumatic de-icing boot. Both are of conventional
arch rib and riveted skin construction—the rubber
de-icing boot being rebated to lie flush with the wing
contour. Landing lamps are set within the leading
edges behind transparent plastic sections (FIG. 1).
Aileron shrouds are formed by extensions of the
wing skins overhung from the rear spar, but the flap
shrouds consist of thin sheet supported by cantilever
brackets at the top and of a metal bonded honeycomb
sandwich at the bottom.
The Frise ailerons and double slotted flaps are
conventional rib, spar and skin structures employing
both the chemi-etching and bonding processes to
maintain low weight flush surfaced components. The
aileron tab on the port side is a combined balance and
trim tab and that on the starboard is for balance only,
both being hung on piano-type hinges. All three
aileron hinges are fail safe by cither duplication of
brackets or by the provision of a 'catcher' which takes
over when one leg of a fork fitting fails. There are no
complicated flap movements—duplicated outrigger
brackets being provided for the three hinges which
are set well outside the lower wing contour. The flaps
which are in two sections per side are driven from the
fuselage side, the two sections being connected by fail
safe spigots. The centre hinge is common for both
sections. The multiple attached flap slats are made as
glass-fibre reinforced polyester (G.R.P.) laminated
monocoques.
The engine mounting, which is attached to four
fittings on the front spar, is fabricated from T.60
1 per cent Cr-Mo welded steel tube. This is a redun-
dant (fail safe) space frame which picks up the engine
in three main positions and two further subsidiary
ones.
The lower surface of the wing below the fuselage is
composed of large non-load carrying doors for access
to the equipment below the fuselage. Extensive use of
metal bonding is used for these and for the fixed
covers over the undercarriage bay and the bay doors.
The latter are in two parts, one being hinged at the
outer end of the bay and attached by a link to the
undercarriage leg, and the other larger door hinged at
the inner end and driven through a mechanism by the
undercarriage movement. Currently these doors and
covers are made of a contoured plate with an internal
stiffening pressing, but serious consideration is being
given to honeycomb sandwich for later production.
Fuselage
The main cabin is pressurised to a differential of
6½ lb./sq. in. to give a cabin altitude of 8,000 ft. at
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24
AIRCRAFT
ENGINEERING
September 1967
 September 1987
30,000 ft. There is a flat sloping pressure bulkhead
just forward of the crew compartment. The nose
wheel gear is mounted on a pair of robust vertical
beams on the sloping bulkhead and retracts forward.
The aft boundary of the pressure cabin is a flat
bulkhead which also carries the fin front spar on two
near vertical members (FIG. 7). Both L.72 sheet bulk-
heads are stiffened by Z sections which are in turn
supported by the bulkhead-to-skin angle attachments
and the above mentioned vertical beams. Between
these bulkheads the L.70 pressure shell consists of a
6 ft. 6 in. maximum diameter circular cross section
(except the crew cabin) of chemi-etched sheets and
riveted Z section L.73 stringers. No bonding is used
on the pressure cabin skins because of the necessity
of providing the maximum corrosion protection
including the interfay area between skin and stringers.
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The stringers are therefore flush-riveted to the skins
with cut countersunk rivets, both elements having
received their corrosion protection in the detail stage,
Between the stringers the skin thickness is reduced by
chemical milling, except where reinforcing is required
for the windows and door cutouts or where any
riveting is required. Thick lands are left at all frame
positions whether the frames are riveted to the skins
or not, to act as longitudinal crack stoppers. Three
heavy frames at each of the three wing pickups are
attached directly to the skin, these frames being of
L.65 stretched I extrusions, or cold compressed L.77
forgings. The continuity of the stringers at these
frames is made up by judicious use of chemi-etching.
At all other frames, except at the door opening, the
continuous Z section L.72 frames sit on the free flanges
of the stringers and are shear cleated to them. Where
shear attachments of the frames to the skin are
necessary this is provided by riveted castellated shear
plates (no. 5).
The outwards opening entry door aft of the wing
on the port side is hinged at the bottom and fitted
with G.R.P. moulded airstairs. The double skinned
door is stiffened with internal diaphragms carrying
two shoot bolts on each side. A further shoot bolt is
provided at the top and a shear block at the bottom,
the door carrying a proportion of fuselage shear load
but no pressure hoop tension. The hinges are rubber
mounted and carry no loads when the door is closed.
The only other pressurised hatch in the pressure shell
is the 'pull in' escape hatch over the wing on the star-
board side. This, too, carries a proportion of fuselage
shear load through two side shoot bolts and shear
blocks, but no hoop tension.
The crew windscreens are set in seven separate
quadrilateral frames, which lie between upper and
lower continuous horseshoe coamings. The window
frames thus form duplicated ties between the crew
compartment roof and the frames below the lower
AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING
coamings. The frames are currently machined from
D.T.D.5020 plate, but in later production will be
A.357 Premium Castings. The centre window is of
laminated transparent plastic, and the windows in
front of the pilots of laminated gold film glass. These
three panes all meet the bird impact cases of B.C.A.R.
Section D. Aft of these, the D.V. windows and those
behind are of double pane transparent plastic, the
outer pane carrying the cabin pressure. All crew
windows are flat panels, but passenger cabin windows
are curved, moulded transparent plastic. These, too,
are double pane windows with the outer pane the main
pressure load carrying member.
On either side of a central walkway, which is set
low on the vertical diameter of the fuselage, and gives
a headroom of 5 ft. 11 in., are vertical keel members
which support seat rails. Further rails are mounted
at the fuselage side with a 'shelf between them. The
rails allow universal pitching of seats and other
optional extra equipment (FIG. 5). The walkway and
'shelf flooring are made from expanded P.V.C. cored
metal faced sandwich. The use of this core was
dictated by the heat and sound insulating require-
ments which would have necessitated additional
weight of insulation if a metal honeycomb cored
sandwich had been used.
As has already been mentioned, the upper wing
spar boom is extended through the fuselage, being
slightly kinked downwards at the fuselage side pin
joint in order to reduce the inevitable step in the cabin
walkway. The height of this 'hurdle' inside the fuse-
lage is only 6½ in. (FIG. 5). The fuselage skins are
interrupted by the shear web joining the upper to the
lower spar boom, the latter, it may be remembered,
passing under the pressure shell. The centre section
spar web is made up of bonded laminated plates to
reinforce the many holes through which services and
controls run down the length of the fuselage under the
seat 'shelves'.
Outside the pressure cabin at the forward end above
the nose wheel bay is a large avionic compartment
(FIG. 1) to which access is available through two large
doors hinged on the top centre line and secured by
toggle fasteners at the lower edges. Forward of this
compartment the metal nose cone can be replaced
when required, by a radome to house the optional
extra weather radar scanner.
Aft of the rear pressure bulkhead the fuselage shell
is continued to the rear fin pickup frame of similar
construction to the pressure bulkhead, but without
the extra pressure carrying capability. Between these
two frames access is obtained to the equipment therein
through a shear carrying door in the bottom of the
fuselage. Aft of the rear bulkhead is the detachable
tailcone, removal of which by toggle fasteners gives
access to the rudder control connections.
27
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137
Tail Unit
The fin is mounted on to the fuselage by four
multi-bolted joints (FIG. 7), to carry side bending loads
and by shear connections on all four sides of the torque
box. These fail safe connections have also to carry the
tailplane loads, which are carried into the fin by four
pin joints. The four lugs are mounted on the top of
two sub spars running parallel to the main fin spars
and between them. The L.72 fin skins are interrupted
to allow the tailplane structural box to pass through
the fin between the main spars. The bottom part of
the fin, therefore, naturally forms a multi-spar con-
struction (FIG. 6) and this is continued above the tail-
plane. There is a total of only five ribs in the fin—at
root, below and above the tailplane opening, at tip and
one intermediate between tailplane and tip. The fin
skins are composed of a continuous skin below and
another above the tailplane, to each being bonded
'waffle' plates which form the necessary reinforce-
ments at areas of high load and round the access
panels, and also give the necessary thickness for cut
countersink riveting. The spars are of orthodox L.65
extruded angle and L.72 tension field web construc-
tion—the extruded angles being jointed at their upper
ends to thin drawn section L.72 angles. The upper two
of the three rudder hinges are similar to those for the
aileron, and fail safe in design, but the lower datum
hinge which carries the rudder torque tube and spring
tab mechanism has an additional 'catcher' spigot
mounted in a bracket on the rear fuselage bulkhead.
This only acts when a failure of the datum hinge
occurs.
The aerodynamically horn balanced rudder is of
orthodox single spar and rib construction, making
use of the bonded 'waffle' plate technique for rein-
forcement where necessary. The mass balance is
carried in the foremost part of the horn. The mass
 28 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING September 1967

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137

balanced combined spring and trim tab is of constant

section and the skins are bonded to identical ribs.
The tailplane box is structurally continuous from
tip to tip and is a distributed flange beam (Fig. 8).
The construction is similar to the outer part of the
wing, being L.73 Z section stringers bonded to the
L.72 skins. The continuous rib flanges pass over the
free lip of the stringers and where necessary separate
castellated shear plates are riveted on. The closing
web at the rear of the tailplane is curved to act as the
shroud for the inset hinge type elevator. The skins,
stringers and spar webs are jointed to a separate
centre structure through multi-riveted joints. The
four fork fittings which attach to the fin structure are
mounted off the front and rear centre section webs.
The elevator is acrodynamically balanced by horn
and inset hinges. The horn carries the mass balance
and in order to avoid cutting the structurally valuable
elevator leading edge at the outermost hinge, a swan-
necked fitting is employed. In other respects the
elevator construction follows that of the rudder. The
elevator interconnecting tube, which carries the
control lever at the aircraft centre line, is supported
by the root hinges and connected to the elevator halves
by shear and torque carrying couplings, no elevator
bending moment being transmitted. The highly five different cases, three of which include a cabin ting loads. The in-flight cycle of gust and manoeuvre
tapered combined trim and balance tabs are of pressure loading. The whole airframe will, for these loads is being 'randomised' by computer so that no
'waffle' plate reinforced skins and riveted rib con- three cases, be immersed in a water tank, the small one 'flight' will be exactly as another. The cumulative
struction. wing span justifying such a course, rather than the damage will be known as a percentage of the total
Both vertical and horizontal fixed surfaces are fitted provision of water seals round the wings in a tank to target at all times. The tailplane and elevators of this
with detachable metal leading edges which can be immerse the fuselage only. This same airframe will airframe are being held in reserve for fatigue testing
replaced by others containing rebated de-icing boots be used for the control circuit tests which will be if and when required. Currently calculations show
as optional extras. interspersed between the major strength tests. The such a high reserve of life on the fail safe design that
F.A.A. mandatory limit load tests on control surfaces any testing can be safely left to a later time in the
will be covered by this programme. aircraft development. Following completion of the
A second airframe will be used for fatigue testing. fatigue testing a programme of fail safe and static
PROTECTIVE TREATMENT Initial testing will be confined to the pressure cabin, residual strength tests will be carried out on this air-
Much attention has been paid to the internal but following the completion of the programme on frame.
protective treatment. Reference has already been the static strength airframe, the same tank and rig The welded steel engine mounting will be statically
made to the integral fuel tank where anodising will be used for a programmed fatigue test. This tested to design ultimate conditions following which
followed by two coats of chrometch primer is applied. will cover the whole flight cycle from take-off to its fail safe characteristics will be extensively in-
Inside the pressure cabin, probably the most vul- landing, including taxying and undercarriage opera- vestigated.
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nerable part of any aircraft structure, the protection In addition to this major test programme there
consists of anodised skins followed by two stoved have already been completed a large number of R. &
coats of epoxy primer in the detail stage. The epoxy D. and other back-up tests. Tests on small specimens
primer will leach strontium chromate in the presence to determine the fatigue characteristics of chemi-
of water, and barium chromate if salt water is present. etched plate both with and without the cut counter-
Both these compounds are corrosion inhibiting. After sunk riveted joints typical of the fuselage shell, and to
assembly with a non-hardening barium chromate investigate the effects of various surface finishes and
compound (J.C.5A) or Thiokol if at a pressure seal, treatments, were completed very early in the design
a further coat of polyurethane enamel is applied to the stage. A whole series of tension areas on the wing
lowest underfloor areas, where the most corrosive were chosen for fatigue tests, typical examples being
media collect. The polyurethane is also a Skydrol the wing access panel joints, stringer and spar boom
resistant coating and is therefore used in all servicing joints in combination with the chemi-etched skin
bays and other areas where Skydrol could reach if thickness changes, and the centre section bottom boom
spilled or if a hydraulic leak or failure occurred. In scarf joint. Skin-stringer combinations representative
other less vulnerable internal areas, one coat of of both wing and fuselage have been tested statically
chrometch followed by a coat of epoxy primer is under compressive endloads. Other detail tests which
applied to details. After assembly with J.C.5A at the have been carried out include the mandatory ones of
interfay, a further coat of epoxy enamel is required. castings, forgings and windows. An investigation into
The final external finish is, of course, to the cus- the effects of environment on the adhesive properties
tomer's requirements, but the undercoating consists of F.M.1000 will continue for some time yet under
of a standard treatment of epoxy primer with a much more severe conditions than could reasonably
Skydrol resistant polyurethane coat applied where be expected to occur to any aircraft in service.
applicable. Resonance tests as confirmation of the calculations
used in determining flutter speeds are being done on a
complete airframe, and specifically on the rudder
spring tab and its control circuit.
STRUCTURAL TESTING All the tests results obtained to date confirm the
At the original concept of the Jetstream a major design assumptions and strength calculations they
structural test programme was devised which was to have been intended to check.
have completed both fatigue and static testing on one
airframe. The success of the venture, together with the
object of obtaining results which would enable rapid IN CONCLUSION
development of the airframe to higher all up weights
and other variants, has now led to the technically more It is confidently predicted that the structural design
satisfactory method of using two specimens. The first and the means whereby it is being proved, will enable
of these is a complete airframe which will undergo the airframe to match the initial success and ultimate
static strength tests covering the critical stressing development which the whole Jetstream concept is
cases for wing, fuselage and tail unit. This involves expected to provide.