BLOG102 – BUSINESS LOGIC

MIDTERM

LESSON 1: PROPOSITION

Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
• Define judgment and proposition
• Identify whether a given proposition is categorical, conditional, disjunctive, or
conjunctive proposition
• Construct various kinds of proposition

PROPOSITION
A proposition is a sentence or statement which affirms or denies something. For
instance, in the proposition, "Venna is pretty," "pretty" is affirmed of "Venna," while in
"Venna is not ugly," "ugly" is denied of "Venna." The "something" affirmed or denied is
either simple existence of a subject, as in "God exists" and "The Titanic is long gone," or
attribute, as in "Baguio is cool," and "Darwin is tall," or relationship or connection, as in "If
you study well, then you will pass this course," and "You will be promoted because she
will be retired."

The affirmation or denial of something is either true or false on the basis of its relation to
fact or reality. Thus, one basic characteristic of logical propositions is that it expresses
truth or falsity in whatever judgment it makes. The assertion or denial, and the element
of truth or falsity are two reasons why all propositions are sentences but not all
sentences are propositions. Commands (e.g. Study your lessons), prayers (e.g. Lord
please grant the desires of my heart.), wishes (e.g. I hope to work in Thailand this year.),
and doubts (e.g. I am not sure you will be hired.) are sentences which are not
propositions. In other words, only declarative sentences which can either be true or
false on the basis of their assertions, pronouncement or judgments about certain facts
or reality qualify as propositions. In the words of Aristotle:

Every sentence has a meaning...yet every sentence is not a proposition; only

such are
propositions as have in them either truth or falsity. Thus, a prayer is a sentence,
but is
neither true nor false.

Kinds
There are four major kinds of propositions, namely, categorical, conditional, disjunctive,
and conjunctive propositions.

Categorical proposition. The categorical proposition is that which either affirms or

denies something without any qualification or condition. Its truth or falsity is based on its
own content, not on the content of any other statement. It expresses an unconditional
affirmation or negation (denial) of something which is neither true nor false. Its basic
structure is made up of three elements which are subject-term which is stated first,
followed by the copula, and the predicate-term stated last. Below are some examples:
1. Manuel is tall and big.
2. The weather is not good.
3. Few men are not conscientious.
4. Orchids are expensive flowers.
5. Some houses are painted white.

In the first example, "Manuel" is the subject-term, "is" is the copula, and "tall and big" is
the predicate-term. "Tall and big" are attributes which are affirmed of Manuel.

The categorical proposition is considered the proposition proper. This is so because it is

in application of categorical proposition that the purpose and rule of logic (which is to
draw certain and definitive conclusions that necessarily follow the premises) is realized.
Further, it is the type of proposition which allows for the evaluation of the validity of an
inference or reasoning.

Conditional proposition. The conditional proposition is the kind which makes an

assertion but qualified by a condition. Structurally, it is a compound proposition made
up of two simple categorical propositions so arranged that the first component, called
the antecedent, states the condition while the second component, called the
consequent, states the consequence, outcome or result. The two components are so
related that the truth of the consequence is dependent on the truth of the antecedent.
To make this point clear, examples are given below:
1. If the weather is fine, then we shall go boating.
2. If mother approves, then I will go to the dance with you.
3. Election of officers will be held but only when over half of all members are in
attendance.
4. It is only after he resigned that I will file my application for his position.
5. If he will study hard, then he will pass this course.

In the first example "then we shall go boating" is the consequence which is true or will
be done when the antecedent which is the condition "if the weather is fine" is met.

It should be noted that while ordinarily the condition or antecedent is stated ahead of
the consequence, this may not be the case always. The third illustration is a case in
point. Here, the consequence "election of officers will be held" is stated before the
condition "only when over half of all members are in attendance."

Disjunctive proposition. The disjunctive proposition is the type which presents two or
more alternatives but only one of which is true. It is also known as the alternative
proposition. In this proposition, the alternatives are usually joined by the conjunctions
"either...or," but not always, as the last of the following illustrations exemplifies:
 1. He is either asleep or awake.
2. Andre will take up engineering, architecture or medicine.
3. Either we have a national language or we do not.
4. Venson is either in Canada, Switzerland or Japan.
5. It is not possible that the orbit of the planets are circles and ellipses.

Conjunctive proposition. The conjunctive proposition is the kind of proposition which

presents two alternatives which cannot be true simultaneously or at the same time. For
illustration, the following will suffice.
1. She cannot be single and married too.
2. Mothers cannot be caring and uncaring at the same time.
3. It is impossible for a day to be sunny and at the same time rainy.
4. He cannot be in Singapore and in Malaysia at the same time.
5. It is not possible for a country to have both the presidential and the
parliamentary systems of governance.

In using places as illustration, as in the case of the fourth example, care must be taken
that the places used are not adjacent; if they are, it is possible for a person to stand
astride over the boundary and render the argument, that one cannot be in two places
at the same time, false.