Female Character Design in Today’s Cartoons: The

typical and the alternative “girl squad”

Gabriela Sá1 and Paula Tavares2

1
IPCA, School of Design, Barcelos, Portugal
gabrielasa@protonmail.com
2
ID+IPCA, School of Design, Barcelos, Portugal
ptavares@ipca.pt

Abstract. Mainstream animation reaches audiences worldwide and contributes to

the creation and reinforcement of certain social concepts. These are usually a
reflection of the societal views at the time of production, but they can also be new
standards, that will help us move towards a more accepting society. Animated
films and television series can influence a child’s upbringing, and should therefore
make inclusive and forward-thinking gender representations. However, female
representation in mainstream animation is often stereotyped and redundant. In
animated television series, we found a tendency we called “girl squads” – groups of
female protagonists that look very similar and portray a very narrow definition of
beauty and femininity. Nevertheless, we also found good examples of female
character design that offer alternatives with diversity and a broader sense of what it
means to be part of the female gender.

Keywords: gender, mainstream animation, character development, television.

1 Introduction

This research reflects a part of a master’s project about female representation in

mainstream animation, that started by questioning how women are portrayed in this
medium and what consequences it has in society. We started by looking at the past 25
years of mainstream animation film to better understand the current trend. After
analyzing data from 196 animated features, which we categorized as mainstream, we
observed a clear lack of female representation. First, we looked at the production team
and we found very few female directors - for each female director, there are 26 male
directors. Even more revealing is the fact that Jennifer Yuh Nelson is the only woman
with a solo director’s credit - for Kung Fu Panda 2 [1]. So 80 years after the release of the
first mainstream animation feature, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs [2], Yuh Nelson is still
the only woman to have solo directed a mainstream animation film [3]. Our (The) next
step was to look at the protagonists in each movie and identify their gender. Once again,
there was a discrepancy between male and female quantitative representation: for each
female protagonist, there are four male protagonists. The problem grew bigger as we
observed the characters’ design and reached some conclusions regarding the female
visual representation. The designs were repetitive and reduced the whole female gender
to basic drawing formulas. From this conclusion, we shifted the investigation to
animated television series, in order to understand the relationship between the two
mediums. This article concerns the second part of the investigation, regarding the current
portrayal of female characters in animated television series aimed at children.
Thompson and Zerbinos [15] did a complex and detailed research on gender portrayal
in cartoons, which serves as an important reference for other studies that followed.
However, their study dates back to 1993 and their conclusions could now be outdated.
In addition, their study mainly focuses in psychological traits and behavior of characters,
to show gender-coded behavior; rather than focusing on character form and design, such
as we intend to do.
In 2008, a vast research was conducted in order to better understand gender
representations in children’s television [38]. This research involved the collaboration of
24 countries and, based on national samples, it allowed researchers to identify existing
patterns. Again, this study was much vaster than ours and focused on psychological traits
and behavior of characters - also reaching through subjects such as skin color, age, hair
color and body weight. It gives a more contemporary perspective on gender portrayal in
children’s cartoons than the Thompson and Zerbinos’s research, but still does not
mention the similarity of form in female character design, which is the focus of our
research.
Therefore, it is our intention to show there is a pattern of within-cartoon similarity of
form in female characters, through the analysis of cartoons currently airing on children’s
television.

2 Gender and mainstream animation

2.1 Gender as a social construct

To better understand the point of view of this research, we will clarify what we
understand by gender. According to Mota-Ribeiro, if we are going to use the concepts of
sex and gender differently, it means we will be facing the masculine/feminine issue from
a social perspective [4]. The World Health Organization explains it like this: “Sex refers
to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. Gender
refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and women” [5].
Biological sex is usually identified even before birth, through simple observation of
the genitalia. However, gender is taught and learnt through social experiences. Therefore,
it is possible for a biological male to not show what society considers to be masculine
features. The same goes for females. Western contemporary societies still expect a
correspondence between biological sex and gender manifestations [6]. Yet, this
expectation is a social construct and the fact that a person is born a man or a woman,
biologically speaking, does not necessarily mean they will show typical masculine or
feminine traits [4].
The concepts of femininity and masculinity are mutable, we know they change
through time and from culture to culture. However, these concepts may appear to be
unalterable, because they are so deeply rooted in society. The definition of each gender
(feminine and masculine) in a given society becomes a set of generalized beliefs of what
is typical and appropriate for men and women, creating patterns of socially recognizable
behaviors. According to Mota-Ribeiro, these definitions of gender are cognitive
organized structures that allow easier compartmentalization and simplification of the
social environment [4].
The rules of gender are transmitted and reinforced by the social institutions of each
culture, like the State, Church, school, family and the mass media. We are constantly
surrounded by these social expectations regarding gender and our actions are being
permanently questioned or validated through our social interactions.

2.2 Mainstream animation as a social tool

Benjamin R. Barber (cited by Giroux, 63) [7] said: “It is time to recognize that the true
tutors of our children are not schoolteachers or university professors but filmmakers,
advertising executives and pop culture purveyors. Disney does more than Duke,
Spielberg outweighs Stanford, MTV trumps MIT”. The role mass media (and in
particular mainstream animation) plays as a source of entertainment and education makes
us question its impact on society.
Mainstream, meaning “a prevailing current or direction of activity or influence” [8], is
commonly used to characterize something that is principal, dominant and accepted by
the majority. So, when we talk about mainstream animation, in this research, we are
referring to a group of animated films or animated series that reach audiences worldwide
in a large scale, travelling the commercial route of international movie theaters and
television networks.
Mainstream animation can serve as a sociopolitical tool, since it contributes to the
development of a social identity. For example, it is common for children to watch the
same animated movie or television series repeatedly [9]. The continuous exposure to the
same movie or television series will increase the probability of certain actions, behaviors
and images from that material to influence the child’s growth, as children become “a
result of their observation and imitation of relevant social models in their environment”
[10].
Jean Piaget, who studied cognitive science and child psychology, identified adaptation
as being the ultimate goal of cognitive development [11]. Social interactions are one of
the three experiences he identified as needed to achieve adaptation to the surrounding
environment [11]. Cultural experiences, such as watching mainstream animation, are part
of the phenomenon of transmission, teaching and reinforcement of certain social
concepts, ideals and values [4]. Constructivism1 and cultivation theory2, both based on
Piaget’s epistemological research, suggest that gender representations – just like other

1
“Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive
process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their
own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior
knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective” (retrieved from http://learning-
theories.com/constructivism.html#contributors).
2
"Cultivation theory states that high frequency viewers of television are more susceptible to
media messages and the belief that they are real and valid" (retrieved from
http://masscommtheory.com/2010/03/12/cultivation-theory-how-violence-might-affect-us).
values and social concepts - found on screen (be it a movie theater or a television set)
will shape the child’s expectation about gender roles [12].
The social concepts represented on mainstream animation are usually a reflection of
the societal views at the time of production. Consequently, they rarely depict forward-
thinking gender representations, or other social concepts, as they could be considered
shocking and potentially decrease the appeal for the mass audience. Thus, mainstream
animation thrives on this complacent relationship with its audience, who can understand
its form, patterns and concepts easily [13].
However, we should not forget that “television may not only reflect contemporary
standards in gender roles, but may also generate such standards” [14]. And, because
children begin watching television at a very young age and they spend a substantial
amount of time doing so [15], animated television series (and other television content)
“can play a positive role in children’s learning” [16]. However, the opposite is also true:
“realistic and varied portrayals of men and women will enhance healthy development”
and “unrealistic stereotypes will negatively influence young viewers” [17].
And because children are more likely to imitate same-gender characters rather than
opposite-gender ones [18], animated television series will play “an important role in
modeling gender-specific behavior” [17].
Therefore, it seems animation production companies have a choice: either to
perpetuate stereotypes or to propel positive change, at the risk of some audience
backlash.

3 Animated television series

3.1 The relevance of animated television series

We began the research by looking for lists of successful animated television series.
The first list we analyzed was IGN’s3 Top 100 Animated Series [19]. Of the 100 cartoons
presented on the list, only two of them had female leading characters: Josie and the
Pussycats [20] and The Powerpuff Girls [21]. Other series had female characters in the main
group, but they were always secondary in relationship to the leading male. Since this
research will mainly focus on female character design, we had to look for another group
of animated television series, whose female representation was more prominent.
Nevertheless, looking at only these two cartoons, we noticed a possible trend we called
“girl squad”.
To confirm that this was indeed a trend, we gathered information from current
television children’s programming. We listed all animated television series on the current
schedule from the following channels: Disney Channel, Disney Junior, Canal Panda,
Panda Biggs, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network. Panda Biggs was the only channel that
did not have a single cartoon on its schedule with a female-driven narrative and was,
therefore, put aside for this research. After collecting data from the other channels’

3
IGN is “the leading Internet media company focused on the video game and entertainment
enthusiast markets” (retrieved from the About Us page on IGN’s website;
http://corp.ign.com/).
schedule, we ended up with a list of 89 animated television series that are currently airing
on Portuguese television.
The next step was to separate the female-driven narratives from the rest of the group.
We then had 26 shows that either had an all-female group of protagonists or whose
narrative was primarily put in motion by a main female character. We immediately
noticed similarities between some of these shows, regarding the main characters’
occupation or special trait. We found we could fit almost all of the main characters of
these shows in the following categories: princess, superhero, magical girl, and musician.
There were only six shows that did not fit these categories. Two of them featured
normal young girls; three shows had animals as their main characters; none had magical
powers and they all focused on friendship and family. Lastly, Doc McStuffins [22], a show
that featured a six-year-old black girl doctor – an exceptional example.
The other 20 shows all featured protagonists who fit one (or more than one) of the
categories mentioned above – we would like to highlight the fact that half of these shows
fit the princess category. Moreover, it seems important to notice that there is not a single
animated television series on our list whose narrative follows the adventures of a prince.

3.2 The typical “girl squad”

The “girl squad” trend was further revealed when looking at the list of shows with
female-driven narratives that are currently airing on television channels whose
programming is aimed at children.
When looking at Josie and the Pussycats and The Powerpuff Girls, we noticed that both
shows had a group of three female protagonists, whose design was the same - the only
variants being their hair, uniform or color.

Fig. 1 & 2. Left: Josie (redhead), Melody (blonde) and Valerie (dark skinned brunette) – the
members of the Josie and the Pussycats band. Right: Bubbles (blonde), Blossom (redhead) and
Buttercup (brunette) – the three Powerpuff Girls.

This supports the idea of similarity of form in female character design within a given
cartoon. The three protagonists of Josie and the Pussycats have the exact same design, for
the exception of their hair. Facial features and body form are the same; so, without their
hair or skin color, it would be impossible to tell them apart. The same goes for the three
characters in The Powerpuff Girls: The three girls have the exact same design, with the
exception of hair and color - although one could argue if their being made of the same
ingredients would be enough excuse to make them look identical.
But while the characters in Josie and the Pussycats have idealized forms (like a slim and
proportionate hourglass figure with a pretty face), the Powerpuff Girls have exaggerated
facial features and disproportionate bodies. This does not support the idea of similarity
of form in the design of female characters throughout different shows.
However, we can still find a pattern of idealization and/or sexualization of form that
is visible across cartoons. Of the 26 shows with female driven narratives currently airing
on Portuguese television, 11 could be said to follow the “girl squad” trend. Some of
them, like DC Super Hero Girls [24], Winx Club [25], Regal Academy [28] and Lolirock [29],
have main characters whose forms could be considered idealized and/or sexualized. Like
in Josie and the Pussycats, we can see slim (or even extremely thin) hourglass figures, long
legs and pretty faces, which abide to the general (and narrow) concept of what feminine
beauty is.

Fig. 3. The female protagonists of DC Super Hero Girls.

Fig. 4. The main female characters from Winx Club.

Gardam noticed a similar trend in mainstream animated movies and pointed out that
most female characters follow a formula that consists of round faces with big eyes and
little pointy noses, disproportionate heads balancing on very slim necks and hourglass
figures with tiny waists and rounded edges [3]. Consequently, female characters end up
having very similar silhouettes and overall designs. Gardam said, about the character
design of the two sisters, Anna and Elsa, in Frozen [23]: “Female characters are given
distinctive hair colors and styles instead of distinctive silhouettes” [3]. This appears to be
true for female characters in animated television series also.
The “girl squad” trend is, therefore, this tendency to create one single design (that
consists of a general form and silhouette) that will be applied to all (or, at least, to several
of the) female characters in a given show. What will differentiate each character will be
their hair, their clothes or a specifically attributed color palette.
Sailor Moon [30] has definitely had an influence on numerous of these series involving
squads of magical girls [31]. The Japanese anime followed the adventures of a villain-
fighting magical-girl squad. Even though the series dealt with female empowerment and
LGBT issues [32] [33], and could therefore be considered innovative and groundbreaking
on some levels, the character design of the Sailor Scouts made them virtually the same,
except for their hair, accessories and uniform color.

Fig. 5. The main female characters from Sailor Moon.

We can then infer that female character design for animated television series aimed at
young girls is often formatted, repetitive and formulaic. Again, as Gardam put it,
“…female animated characters lack any real distinction in terms of their silhouettes – all
have big heads, small waists, an hourglass figure…” and “the lack of creativity in female
designs (…) dehumanizes women. In a world literally created from scratch, an entire
gender is relegated to a single form” [3].
Inside these groups of characters, there is no actual diversity in design: what
distinguishes each character is their hair or accessories. This creates a false sense of
variety: these female characters appear to be representing different groups of people that
range from blonde to brunette and light-skinned to dark-skinned, even though they all
have the same shape and size.
Following the logic of Piaget’s cognitive studies, one could argue that each one of
these cartoons reinforces the value of similarity over difference. Even though there
might be variations in design across cartoons, similarity prevails; therefore, teaching
young viewers that similarity outshines difference. It is also important to stress that this
similarity of form, often leads to a sequence of idealized and/or sexualized bodies – if
there is no variation in design that show variants of the female form, children will absorb
the image that appears to them as the only option.
3.3 The alternative “girl squad”

The single-form female character in animated television series is, as we have seen, a very
common one. However, there are some interesting alternatives to the typical “girl
squad”.
Looking at the 89 shows on our list of animated series currently airing on television,
we can point out some that have interesting groups of female characters.
The first one is The Loud House [35], which tells the story of Lincoln Loud and his 10
sisters. This group of female characters shows slight variations in design for each sister.
The series has consistent visuals that show some diversity of the form, without the need
to use one fixed formula for all female gender.

Fig. 7. The 10 Loud sisters from The Loud House.

The second show is Adventure Time [34], whose main characters are Finn, a boy, and
Jake, his dog best friend. Together, they roam the Land of Ooo, which is mostly
governed by princesses. These princesses vary greatly in design, offering a range of (often
crazy) possibilities for female gender representation. There is Princess Bubblegum and
Flame Princess, whose humanized designs differ in size and shape. Then there is Lumpy
Space Princess – a lumpy purple cloud -, Slime Princess – a glob of green slime - or
Raggedy Princess – a worn-out rag doll. Even though some of these characters are
powerful, independent and interested in science, they still carry the title of princess –
except for Marceline, the Vampire Queen.

Fig. 6. Some of the female characters from Adventure Time.

The last show is Steven Universe [36], which follows the adventures of Steven, a young
boy with magical powers. He lives with three Crystal Gems (an alien race of magical
females), who are in charge of raising him. One look at the three main Gems makes it
clear that the female character design of the series is ingenious and presents a different
approach to the typical “girl squad”. Furthermore, if we put together all the female
characters of the show, we cannot find a repetitive formula for their design. Each
character is unique and presents a distinctive silhouette, as well as distinctive features and
overall design. Observing Fig. 8, we can see a variety of shapes and sizes: a range that
goes from short to tall, athletic to pregnant, curvaceous to slender.
 Fig. 8. Some of the female characters featured in Steven Universe.

The attention to the design of female characters is not by chance. Rebecca Sugar, the
creator of the series (and the first woman to direct an animated series for Cartoon
Network), said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly4: “My goal with the show was to
really tear down and play with the semiotics of gender in cartoons for children” [37]. The
series explores the multiple possibilities for female representation and shows its audience
alternatives within the gender spectrum. The variety in designs and the playfulness of the
visuals include both genders, since even male characters have interesting designs and do
not necessarily follow gender rules of what is typically male or female behavior.
Another of Sugar’s concerns about children’s cartoon was the lack of LGBTQ5
content, as well as other societal concepts about gender conformity. According to Sugar,
“by excluding LGBT content from children’s media, a clear statement is being made that
this is something that should be ignored, and that people who are feeling this (…) should
be ignored” [37].
Steven Universe is, therefore, a show that offers a wide range of gender representations,
without conforming to stereotypical models commonly found in children’s cartoons, and
thus creating a broader understanding of the meaning of femininity and masculinity.

3 Conclusion

With this research, we confirmed the hypothesis that female character design in
mainstream animation is in general repetitive and stereotyped. By analyzing the current
state of animated television series, we gathered enough information to serve as a work
platform for future developments in female character design.
In conclusion, we aim that our work will contribute to the innovation in character
design, so that those dedicated to it, as well as the studios producing mainstream
animation, will be inventive and revolutionary in their gender representations – in
particular, improve and expand the possibilities of representation of the female gender.

4
Entertainment Weekly is an American magazine published by Time Inc. that focuses on pop
culture and entertainment.
5
“LGBTQ is an acronym that stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transexual and Queer and is
used to designate a community of people whose sexual or gender identities can create shared
political and social concerns” (retrieved from http://www.liberateyourself.co.uk/lgbtq/what-
is-lgbtq/).
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